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john locke: an essay concerning human understanding

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Kevin_JIANG >《Epistemology》

2014.04.16

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding

John Locke

This web edition published by eBooks@Adelaide.

Last updated Friday, March 7, 2014 at 22:22.

To the best of our knowledge, the text of this
work is in the “Public Domain” in Australia.
HOWEVER, copyright law varies in other countries, and the work may still be under copyright in the country from which you are accessing this website. It is your responsibility to check the applicable copyright laws in your country before downloading this work.

eBooks@Adelaide
The University of Adelaide Library
University of Adelaide
South Australia 5005

Table of Contents Next

http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/l/locke/john/l81u/index.html

Last updated Friday, March 7, 2014 at 22:36

Find Enlightenment

Summary Contents

Preface and Introduction

1. An Inquiry into the understanding, pleasant and useful.
2. Design.
3. Method.
4. Useful to know the extent of our comprehension.
5. Our capacity suited to our state and concerns.
6. Knowledge of our capacity a cure of scepticism and idleness.
7. Occasion of this essay.
8. What "Idea" stands for.

BOOK I: Neither Principles nor Ideas Are Innate

Chapter I: No Innate Speculative Principles

1. The way shown how we come by any knowledge, sufficient to prove...
2. General assent the great argument.
3. Universal consent proves nothing innate.
4. "What is, is," and "It is impossible for the same thing to be and...
5. Not on the mind naturally imprinted, because not known to...
6. That men know them when they come to the use of reason, answered.
7. Doubtful expressions, that have scarce any signification, go...
8. If reason discovered them, that would not prove them innate.
9. It is false that reason discovers them.
10. No use made of reasoning in the discovery of these two maxims.
11. And if there were, this would prove them not innate.
12. The coming to the use of reason not the time we come to know...
13. By this they are not distinguished from other knowable truths.
14. If coming to the use of reason were the time of their...
15. The steps by which the mind attains several truths.
16. Assent to supposed innate truths depends on having clear and...
17. Assenting as soon as proposed and understood, proves them not...
18. If such an assent be a mark of innate, then "that one and two...
19. Such less general propositions known before these universal...
20. "One and one equal to Two, &c.
21. These maxims not being known sometimes till proposed, proves...
22. Implicitly known before proposing, signifies that the mind is...
23. The argument of assenting on first hearing, is upon a false...
24. Not innate, because not universally assented to.
25. These maxims not the first known.
26. And so not innate.
27. Not innate, because they appear least where what is innate shows...
28. Recapitulation.

Chapter II: No Innate Practical Principles

1. No moral principles so clear and so generally received as the...
2. Faith and justice not owned as principles by all men.
3. Objection: "though men deny them in their practice, yet they...
4. Moral rules need a proof, ergo not innate.
5. Instance in keeping compacts.
6. Virtue generally approved, not because innate, but because...
7. Men's actions convince us that the rule of virtue is not their...
8. Conscience no proof of any innate moral rule.
9. Instances of enormities practised without remorse.
10. Men have contrary practical principles.
11. Whole nations reject several moral rules.
12. The generally allowed breach of a rule, proof that it is not...
13. If men can be ignorant of what is innate, certainty is not...
14. Those who maintain innate practical principles tell us not...
15. Lord Herbert's innate principles examined.
16. These five either not all, or more than all, if there are any.
17. The supposed marks wanting.
18. Of little use if they were innate.
19. Scarce possible that God should engrave principles in words of...
20. Objection, "innate principles may be corrupted," answered.
21. Contrary principles in the world.
22. How men commonly come by their principles.
23. Principles supposed innate because we do not remember when we...
24. How such principles come to be held.
25. Further explained.
26. A worship of idols.
27. Principles must be examined.

Chapter III: Other considerations concerning Innate Principles,

1. Principles not innate, unless their ideas be innate.
2. Ideas, especially those belonging to principles, not born with...
3. "Impossibility" and "identity" not innate ideas.
4. "Identity," an idea not innate.
5. What makes the same man? Nor let any one think that the questions...
6. Whole and part, not innate ideas.
7. Idea of worship not innate.
8. Idea of God not innate.
9. The name of God not universal or obscure in meaning.
10. Ideas of God and idea of fire.
11. Idea of God not innate.
12. Suitable to God's goodness, that all men should have an idea...
13. Ideas of God various in different men.
14. Contrary and inconsistent ideas of God under the same name.
15. Gross ideas of God.
16. Idea of God not innate although wise men of all nations come...
17. Odd, low, and pitiful ideas of God common among men.
18. If the idea of God be not innate, no other can be supposed...
19. Idea of substance not innate.
20. No propositions can be innate, since no ideas are innate.
21. No innate ideas in the memory.
22. Principles not innate, because of little use or little...
23. Difference of men's discoveries depends upon the different...
24. Men must think and know for themselves.
25. Whence the opinion of innate principles.
26. Conclusion.

BOOK II: Of Ideas

Chapter I: Of Ideas in general, and their Original

1. Idea is the object of thinking.
2. All ideas come from sensation or reflection.
3. The objects of sensation one source of ideas.
4. The operations of our minds, the other source of them.
5. All our ideas are of the one or the other of these.
6. Observable in children.
7. Men are differently furnished with these, according to the...
8. Ideas of reflection later, because they need attention.
9. The soul begins to have ideas when it begins to perceive.
10. The soul thinks not always; for this wants proofs.
11. It is not always conscious of it.
12. If a sleeping man thinks without knowing it, the sleeping and...
13. Impossible to convince those that sleep without dreaming, that...
14. That men dream without remembering it, in vain urged.
15. Upon this hypothesis, the thoughts of a sleeping man ought to be...
16. On this hypothesis, the soul must have ideas not derived from...
17. If I think when I know it not, nobody else can know it.
18. How knows any one that the soul always thinks? For if it be...
19. "That a man should be busy in thinking, and yet not retain it...
20. No ideas but from sensation and reflection, evident, if we...
21. State of a child in the mother's womb.
22. The mind thinks in proportion to the matter it gets from...
23. A man begins to have ideas when he first has sensation.
24. The original of all our knowledge.
25. In the reception of simple ideas, the understanding is for the...

Chapter II: Of Simple Ideas

1. Uncompounded appearances.
2. The mind can neither make nor destroy them.
3. Only the qualities that affect the senses are imaginable.

Chapter III: Of Simple Ideas of Sense

1. Division of simple ideas.
2. Few simple ideas have names.

Chapter IV: Idea of Solidity

1. We receive this idea from touch.
2. Solidity fills space.
3. Distinct from space.
4. From hardness.
5. On solidity depend impulse, resistance, and protrusion.
6. What solidity is.

Chapter V: Of Simple Ideas of Divers Senses

Chapter VI: Of Simple Ideas of Reflection

1. Simple ideas are the operations of mind about its other ideas.
2. The idea of perception, and idea of willing, we have from...

Chapter VII: Of Simple Ideas of both Sensation and Reflection

1. Ideas of pleasure and pain.
2. Mix with almost all our other ideas.
3. As motives of our actions.
4. An end and use of pain.
5. Another end.
6. Goodness of God in annexing pleasure and pain to our other ideas.
7. Ideas of existence and unity.
8. Idea of power.
9. Idea of succession.
10. Simple ideas the materials of all our knowledge.

Chapter VIII: Some further considerations concerning

1. Positive ideas from privative causes.
2. Ideas in the mind distinguished from that in things which gives...
3. We may have the ideas when we are ignorant of their physical...
4. Why a privative cause in nature may occasion a positive idea.
5. Negative names need not be meaningless.
6. Whether any ideas are due to causes really privative.
7. Ideas in the mind, qualities in bodies.
8. Our ideas and the qualities of bodies.
9. Primary qualities of bodies.
10. Secondary qualities of bodies.
11. How bodies produce ideas in us.
12. By motions, external, and in our organism.
13. How secondary qualities produce their ideas.
14. They depend on the primary qualities.
15. Ideas of primary qualities are resemblances; of secondary,...
16. Examples.
17. The ideas of the primary alone really exist.
18. The secondary exist in things only as modes of the primary.
19. Examples.
20. Pound an almond, and the clear white colour will be altered into...
21. Explains how water felt as cold by one hand may be warm to the...
22. An excursion into natural philosophy.
23. Three sorts of qualities in bodies.
24. The first are resemblances; the second thought to be...
25. Why the secondary are ordinarily taken for real qualities, and...
26. Secondary qualities twofold; first, immediately perceivable;...

Chapter IX: Of Perception

1. Perception the first simple idea of reflection.
2. Reflection alone can give us the idea of what perception is.
3. Arises in sensation only when the mind notices the organic...
4. Impulse on the organ insufficient.
5. Children, though they may have ideas in the womb, have none...
6. The effects of sensation in the womb.
7. Which ideas appear first, is not evident, nor important.
8. Sensations often changed by the judgment.
9. This judgment apt to be mistaken for direct perception.
10. How, by habit, ideas of sensation are unconsciously changed into...
11. Perception puts the difference between animals and vegetables.
12. Perception in all animals.
13. According to their condition.
14. Decay of perception in old age.
15. Perception the inlet of all materials of knowledge.

Chapter X: Of Retention

1. Contemplation.
2. Memory.
3. Attention, repetition, pleasure and pain, fix ideas.
4. Ideas fade in the memory.
5. Causes of oblivion.
6. Constantly repeated ideas can scarce be lost.
7. In remembering, the mind is often active.
8. Two defects in the memory, oblivion and slowness.
9. A defect which belongs to the memory of man, as finite.
10. Brutes have memory.

Chapter XI: Of Discerning, and other operations of the Mind

1. No knowledge without discernment.
2. The difference of wit and judgment.
3. Clearness done hinders confusion.
4. Comparing.
5. Brutes compare but imperfectly.
6. Compounding.
7. Brutes compound but little.
8. Naming.
9. Abstraction.
10. Brutes abstract not.
11. Brutes abstract not, yet are not bare machines.
12. Idiots and madmen.
13. Difference between idiots and madmen.
14. Method followed in this explication of faculties.
15. The true beginning of human knowledge.
16. Appeal to experience.
17. Dark room.

Chapter XII: Of Complex Ideas

1. Made by the mind out of simple ones.
2. Made voluntarily.
3. Complex ideas are either of modes, substances, or relations.
1. MODES.
2. SUBSTANCES.
3. RELATIONS.
4. Ideas of modes.
5. Simple and mixed modes of simple ideas.
6. Ideas of substances, single or collective.
7. Ideas of relation.
8. The abstrusest ideas we can have are all from two sources.

Chapter XIII: Complex Ideas of Simple Modes:-

1. Simple modes of simple ideas.
2. Idea of Space.
3. Space and extension.
4. Immensity.
5. Figure.
6. Endless variety of figures.
7. Place.
8. Place relative to particular bodies.
9. Place relative to a present purpose.
10. Place of the universe.
11. Extension and body not the same.
12. Extension not solidity.
13. The parts of space inseparable, both really and mentally.
14. The parts of space, immovable.
15. The definition of extension explains it not.
16. Division of beings into bodies and spirits proves not space...
17. Substance which we know not, no proof against space without...
18. Different meanings of substance.
19. Substance and accidents of little use in philosophy.
20. Sticking on and under-propping.
21. A vacuum beyond the utmost bounds of body.
22. The power of annihilation proves a vacuum.
23. Motion proves a vacuum.
24. The ideas of space and body distinct.
25. Extension being inseparable from body, proves it not the same.
26. Essences of things.
27. Ideas of space and solidity distinct.
28. Men differ little in clear, simple ideas.

Chapter XIV: Idea of Duration and its Simple Modes

1. Duration is fleeting extension.
2. Its idea from reflection on the train of our ideas.
3. Nature and origin of the idea of duration.
4. Proof that its idea is got from reflection on the train of our...
5. The idea of duration applicable to things whilst we sleep.
6. The idea of succession not from motion.
7. Very slow motions unperceived.
8. Very swift motions unperceived.
9. The train of ideas has a certain degree of quickness.
10. Real succession in swift motions without sense of succession.
11. In slow motions.
12. This train, the measure of other successions.
13. The mind cannot fix long on one invariable idea.
14. Proof.
15. The extent of our power over the succession of our ideas.
16. Ideas, however made, include no sense of motion.
17. Time is duration set out by measures.
18. A good measure of time must divide its whole duration into equal...
19. The revolutions of the sun and moon, the properest measures of...
20. But not by their motion, but periodical appearances.
21. No two parts of duration can be certainly known to be equal.
22. Time not the measure of motion.
23. Minutes, hours, days, and years not necessary measures of...
24. Our measure of time applicable to duration before time.
25. As we can measure space in our thoughts where there is no...
26. The assumption that the world is neither boundless nor...
27. Eternity.
28. Our measures of duration dependent on our ideas.
29. The duration of anything need not be co-existent with the motion...
30. Infinity in duration.
31. Origin of our ideas of duration, and of the measures of it.

Chapter XV: Ideas of Duration and Expansion, considered together

1. Both capable of greater and less.
2. Expansion not bounded by matter.
3. Nor duration by motion.
4. Why men more easily admit infinite duration than infinite...
5. Time to duration is as place to expansion.
6. Time and place are taken for so much of either as are set out...
7. Sometimes for so much of either as we design by measures taken...
8. They belong to all finite beings.
9. All the parts of extension are extension, and all the parts of...
10. Their parts inseparable.
11. Duration is as a line, expansion as a solid.
12. Duration has never two parts together, expansion altogether.

Chapter XVI: Idea of Number

1. Number the simplest and most universal idea.
2. Its modes made by addition.
3. Each mode distinct.
4. Therefore demonstrations in numbers the most precise.
5. Names necessary to numbers.
6. Another reason for the necessity of names to numbers.
7. Why children number not earlier.
8. Number measures all measureables.

Chapter XVII: Of Infinity

1. Infinity, in its original intention, attributed to space,...
2. The idea of finite easily got.
3. How we come by the idea of infinity.
4. Our idea of space boundless.
5. And so of duration.
6. Why other ideas are not capable of infinity.
7. Difference between infinity of space, and space infinite.
8. We have no idea of infinite space.
9. Number affords us the clearest idea of infinity.
10. Our different conceptions of the infinity of number contrasted...
11. How we conceive the infinity of space.
12. Infinite divisibility.
13. No positive idea of infinity.
14. How we cannot have a positive idea of infinity in quantity.
15. What is positive, what negative, in our idea of infinite.
16. We have no positive idea of an infinite duration.
17. No complete idea of eternal being.
18. No positive idea of infinite space.
19. What is positive, what negative, in our idea of infinite.
20. Some think they have a positive idea of eternity, and not of...
21. Supposed positive ideas of infinity, cause of mistakes.
22. All these are modes of ideas got from sensation and...

Chapter XVIII: Other Simple Modes

1. Other simple modes of simple ideas of sensation.
2. Simple modes of motion.
3. Modes of sounds.
4. Modes of colours.
5. Modes of tastes.
6. Some simple modes have no names.
7. Why some modes have, and others have not, names.

Chapter XIX: Of the Modes of Thinking

1. Sensation, remembrance, contemplation, &c.
2. Other modes of thinking.
3. The various degrees of attention in thinking.
4. Hence it is probable that thinking is the action, not the essence...

Chapter XX: Of Modes of Pleasure and Pain

1. Pleasure and pain, simple ideas.
2. Good and evil, what.
3. Our passions moved by good and evil.
4. Love.
5. Hatred.
6. Desire.
7. Joy is a delight of the mind, from the consideration of the...
8. Sorrow is uneasiness in the mind, upon the thought of a good...
9. Hope is that pleasure in the mind, which every one finds in...
10. Fear is an uneasiness of the mind, upon the thought of future...
11. Despair is the thought of the unattainableness of any good,...
12. Anger is uneasiness or discomposure of the mind, upon the...
13. Envy is an uneasiness of the mind, caused by the consideration...
14. What passions all men have.
15. Pleasure and pain, what.
16. Removal or lessening of either.
17. Shame.
18. These instances to show how our ideas of the passions are got...

Chapter XXI: Of Power

1. This idea how got.
2. Power, active and passive.
3. Power includes relation.
4. The clearest idea of active power had from spirit.
5. Will and understanding two powers in mind or spirit.
6. Faculties, not real beings.
7. Whence the ideas of liberty and necessity.
8. Liberty, what.
9. Supposes understanding and will.
10. Belongs not to volition.
11. Voluntary opposed to involuntary, not to necessary.
12. Liberty, what.
13. Necessity, what.
14. Liberty belongs not to the will.
15. Volition.
16. Powers, belonging to agents.
17. How the will, instead of the man, is called free.
18. This way of talking causes confusion of thought.
19. Powers are relations, not agents.
20. Liberty belongs not to the will.
21. But to the agent, or man.
22. In respect of willing, a man is not free.
23. How a man cannot be free to will.
24. Liberty is freedom to execute what is willed.
25. The will determined by something without it.
26. The ideas of liberty and volition must be defined.
27. Freedom.
28. What volition and action mean.
29. What determines the will.
30. Will and desire must not be confounded.
31. Uneasiness determines the will.
32. Desire is uneasiness.
33. The uneasiness of desire determines the will.
34. This is the spring of action.
35. The greatest positive good determines not the will, but...
36. Because the removal of uneasiness is the first step to...
37. Because uneasiness alone is present.
38. Because all who allow the joys of heaven possible, pursue them...
39. But any great uneasiness is never neglected.
40. Desire accompanies all uneasiness.
41. The most pressing uneasiness naturally determines the will.
42. All desire happiness.
43. Happiness and misery, good and evil, what they are.
44. What good is desired, what not.
45. Why the greatest good is not always desired.
46. Why not being desired, it moves not the will.
47. Due consideration raises desire.
48. The power to suspend the prosecution of any desire makes way for...
49. To be determined by our own judgment, is no restraint to...
50. The freest agents are so determined.
51. A constant determination to a pursuit of happiness no abridgment...
52. The necessity of pursuing true happiness the foundation of...
53. Power to suspend.
54. Government of our passions the right improvement of liberty.
55. How men come to pursue different, and often evil, courses.
56. All men seek happiness, but not of the same sort.
57. Power to suspend volition explains responsibility for ill...
58. Why men choose what makes them miserable.
59. The causes of this.
60. Our judgment of present good or evil always right.
61. Our wrong judgments have regard to future good and evil only.
62. From a wrong judgment of what makes a necessary part of their...
63. A more particular account of wrong judgments.
64. No one chooses misery willingly, but only by wrong judgment.
65. Men may err in comparing present and future.
66. Causes of our judging amiss when we compare present pleasure and...
67. Absent good unable to counterbalance present uneasiness.
68. Wrong judgment in considering consequences of actions.
1. When we judge that so much evil does not really depend on them as...
2. When we judge that, though the consequence be of that moment, yet...
69. Causes of this.
70. Wrong judgment of what is necessary to our happiness.
71. We can change the agreeableness or disagreeableness in things.
72. Preference of vice to virtue a manifest wrong judgment.
73. Recapitulation- liberty of indifferency.
74. Active and passive power, in motions and in thinking.
75. Summary of our original ideas.

Chapter XXII: Of Mixed Modes

1. Mixed modes, what.
2. Made by the mind.
3. Sometimes got by the explication of their names.
4. The name ties the parts of mixed modes into one idea.
5. The cause of making mixed modes.
6. Why words in one language have none answering in another.
7. And languages change.
8. Mixed modes, where they exist.
9. How we get the ideas of mixed modes.
10. Motion, thinking, and power have been most modified.
11. Several words seeming to signify action, signify but the effect.
12. Mixed modes made also of other ideas than those of power and...

Chapter XXIII: Of our Complex Ideas of Substances

1. Ideas of particular substances, how made.
2. Our obscure idea of substance in general.
3. Of the sorts of substances.
4. No clear or distinct idea of substance in general.
5. As clear an idea of spiritual substance as of corporeal...
6. Our ideas of particular sorts of substances.
7. Their active and passive powers a great part of our complex ideas...
8. And why.
9. Three sorts of ideas make our complex ones of corporeal...
10. Powers thus make a great part of our complex ideas of particular...
11. The now secondary qualities of bodies would disappear, if we...
12. Our faculties for discovery of the qualities and powers of...
13. Conjecture about the corporeal organs of some spirits.
14. Our specific ideas of substances.
15. Our ideas of spiritual substances, as clear as of bodily...
16. No idea of abstract substance either in body or spirit.
17. Cohesion of solid parts and impulse, the primary ideas...
18. Thinking and motivity the primary ideas peculiar to spirit.
19. Spirits capable of motion.
20. Proof of this.
21. God immoveable, because infinite.
22. Our complex idea of an immaterial spirit and our complex idea of...
23. Cohesion of solid parts in body as hard to be conceived as...
24. Not explained by an ambient fluid.
25. We can as little understand how the parts cohere in extension,...
26. The cause of coherence of atoms in extended substances...
27. The supposed pressure brought to explain cohesion is...
28. Communication of motion by impulse, or by thought, equally...
29. Summary.
30. Our idea of spirit and our idea of body compared.
31. The notion of spirit involves no more difficulty in it than that...
32. We know nothing of things beyond our simple ideas of them.
33. Our complex idea of God.
34. Our complex idea of God as infinite.
35. God in his own essence incognisable.
36. No ideas in our complex ideas of spirits, but those got from...
37. Recapitulation.

Chapter XXIV: Of Collective Ideas of Substances

1. A collective idea is one idea.
2. Made by the power of composing in the mind.
3. Artificial things that are made up of distinct substances are our...

Chapter XXV: Of Relation

1. Relation, what.
2. Ideas of relations without correlative terms, not easily...
3. Some seemingly absolute terms contain relations.
4. Relation different from the things related.
5. Change of relation may be without any change in the things...
6. Relation only betwixt two things.
7. All things capable of relation.
8. Our ideas of relations often clearer than of the subjects...
9. Relations all terminate in simple ideas.
10. Terms leading the mind beyond the subject denominated, are...
11. All relatives made up of simple ideas.

Chapter XXVI: Of Cause and Effect, and other Relations

1. Whence the ideas of cause and effect got.
2. Creation, generation, making, alteration.
3. Relations of time.
4. Some ideas of time supposed positive and found to be relative.
5. Relations of place and extension.
6. Absolute terms often stand for relations.

Chapter XXVII: Of Identity and Diversity

1. Wherein identity consists.
2. Identity of substances.
3. Principium Individuationis.
4. Identity of vegetables.
5. Identity of animals.
6. The identity of man.
7. Idea of identity suited to the idea it is applied to.
8. Same man.
9. Personal identity.
10. Consciousness makes personal identity.
11. Personal identity in change of substance.
12. Personality in change of substance.
13. Whether in change of thinking substances there can be one...
14. Whether, the same immaterial substance remaining, there can be...
15. The body, as well as the soul, goes to the making of a man.
16. Consciousness alone unites actions into the same person.
17. Self depends on consciousness, not on substance.
18. Persons, not substances, the objects of reward and punishment.
19. Which shows wherein personal identity consists.
20. Absolute oblivion separates what is thus forgotten from the...
21. Difference between identity of man and of person.
22. But is not a man drunk and sober the same person? why else is he...
23. Consciousness alone unites remote existences into one person.
24. Not the substance with which the consciousness may be united.
25. Consciousness unites substances, material or spiritual, with the...
26. "Person" a forensic term.
27. Suppositions that look strange are pardonable in our...
28. The difficulty from ill use of names.
29. Continuance of that which we have made to he our complex idea of...

Chapter XXVIII: Of Other Relations

1. Ideas of proportional relations.
2. Natural relation.
3. Ideas of instituted or voluntary relations.
4. Ideas of moral relations.
5. Moral good and evil.
6. Moral rules.
7. Laws.
8. Divine law the measure of sin and duty.
9. Civil law the measure of crimes and innocence.
10. Philosophical law the measure of virtue and vice.
11. The measure that men commonly apply to determine what they...
12. Its enforcement is commendation and discredit.
13. These three laws the rules of moral good and evil.
14. Morality is the relation of voluntary actions to these rules.
15. Moral actions may be regarded either absolutely, or as ideas...
16. The denominations of actions often mislead us.
17. Relations innumerable, and only the most considerable here...
18. All relations terminate in simple ideas.
19. We have ordinarily as clear a notion of the relation, as of...
20. The notion of relation is the same, whether the rule any...

Chapter XXIX: Of Clear and Obscure, Distinct and Confused Ideas

1. Ideas, some clear and distinct, others obscure and confused.
2. Clear and obscure explained by sight.
3. Causes of obscurity.
4. Distinct and confused, what.
5. Objection.
6. Confusion of ideas is in reference to their names.
7. Defaults which make this confusion.
8. Their simple ones jumbled disorderly together.
9. Their simple ones mutable and undetermined.
10. Confusion without reference to names, hardly conceivable.
11. Confusion concerns always two ideas.
12. Causes of confused ideas.
13. Complex ideas may be distinct in one part, and confused in...
14. This, if not heeded, causes confusion in our arguings.
15. Instance in eternity.
16. Infinite divisibility of matter.

Chapter XXX: Of Real and Fantastical Ideas

1. Ideas considered in reference to their archetypes.
2. Simple ideas are all real appearances of things.
3. Complex ideas are voluntary combinations.
4. Mixed modes and relations, made of consistent ideas, are real.
5. Complex ideas of substances are real, when they agree with the...

Chapter XXXI: Of Adequate and Inadequate Ideas

1. Adequate ideas are such as perfectly represent their...
2. Simple ideas all adequate.
3. Modes are all adequate.
4. Modes, in reference to settled names, may be inadequate.
5. Because then meant, in propriety of speech, to correspond to...
6. Ideas of substances, as referred to real essences, not...
7. Because men know not the real essences of substances.
8. Ideas of substances, when regarded as collections of their...
9. Their powers usually make up our complex ideas of substances.
10. Substances have innumerable powers not contained in our...
11. Ideas of substances, being got only by collecting their...
12. Simple ideas, ektupa, and adequate.
13. Ideas of substances are ektupa, and inadequate.
14. Ideas of modes and relations are archetypes and cannot be...

Chapter XXXII: Of True and False Ideas

1. Truth and falsehood properly belong to propositions, not to...
2. Ideas and words may be said to be true, inasmuch as they really...
3. No idea, as an appearance in the mind, either true or false.
4. Ideas referred to anything extraneous to them may be true or...
5. Other men's ideas; real existence; and supposed real essences,...
6. The cause of such reference.
7. Names of things supposed to carry in them knowledge of their...
8. How men suppose that their ideas must correspond to things, and...
9. Simple ideas may be false, in reference to others of the same...
10. Ideas of mixed modes most liable to be false in this sense.
11. Or at least to be thought false.
12. And why.
13. As referred to real existence, none of our ideas can be false...
14. Simple ideas in this sense not false, and why.
15. Though one man's idea of blue should be different from...
16. Simple ideas can none of them be false in respect of real...
17. Modes not false cannot be false in reference to essences of...
18. Ideas of substances may be false in reference to existing...
19. Truth or falsehood always supposes affirmation or negation.
20. Ideas in themselves neither true nor false.
21. But are false- when judged agreeable to another man's idea,...
22. When judged to agree to real existence, when they do not.
23. When judged adequate, without being so.
24. When judged to represent the real essence.
25. Ideas, when called false.
26. More properly to be called right or wrong.

Chapter XXXIII: Of the Association of Ideas

1. Something unreasonable in most men.
2. Not wholly from self-love.
3. Not from education.
4. A degree of madness found in most men.
5. From a wrong connexion of ideas.
6. This connexion made by custom.
7. Some antipathies an effect of it.
8. Influence of association to be watched educating young...
9. Wrong connexion of ideas a great cause of errors.
10. An instance.
11. Another instance.
12. A third instance.
13. Why time cures some disorders in the mind, which reason cannot...
14. Another instance of the effect of the association of ideas.
15. More instances.
16. A curious instance.
17. Influence of association on intellectual habits.
18. Observable in the opposition between different sects of...
19. Conclusion.

BOOK III: Of Words

Chapter I: Of Words or Language in General

1. Man fitted to form articulate sounds.
2. To use these sounds as signs of ideas.
3. To make them general signs.
4. To make them signify the absence of positive ideas.
5. Words ultimately derived from such as signify sensible ideas.
6. Distribution of subjects to be treated of.

Chapter II: Of the Signification of Words

1. Words are sensible signs, necessary for communication of ideas.
2. Words, in their immediate signification, are the sensible signs...
3. Examples of this.
4. Words are often secretly referred first to the ideas supposed...
5. To the reality of things.
6. Words by use readily excite ideas of their objects.
7. Words are often used without signification, and why.
8. Their signification perfectly arbitrary, not the consequence of a...

Chapter III: Of General Terms

1. The greatest part of words are general terms.
2. That every particular thing should have a name for itself is...
3. And would be useless, if it were possible.
4. A distinct name for every particular thing, not fitted for...
5. What things have proper names, and why.
6. How general words are made.
7. Shown by the way we enlarge our complex ideas from infancy.
8. And further enlarge our complex ideas, by still leaving out...
9. General natures are nothing but abstract and partial ideas of...
10. Why the genus is ordinarily made use of in definitions.
11. General and universal are creatures of the understanding, and...
12. Abstract ideas are the essences of genera and species.
13. They are the workmanship of the understanding, but have their...
14. Each distinct abstract idea is a distinct essence.
15. Several significations of the word "essence.
16. Constant connexion between the name and nominal essence.
17. Supposition, that species are distinguished by their real...
18. Real and nominal essence the same in simple ideas and modes,...
19. Essences ingenerable and incorruptible.
20. Recapitulation.

Chapter IV: Of the Names of Simple Ideas

1. Names of simple ideas, modes, and substances, have each something...
2. Names of simple ideas, and of substances intimate real existence.
3. Names of simple ideas and modes signify always both real and...
4. Names of simple ideas are undefinable.
5. If all names were definable, it would be a process in...
6. What a definition is.
7. Simple ideas, why undefinable.
8. Instances: scholastic definitions of motion.
9. Modern definitions of motion.
10. Definitions of light.
11. Simple ideas, why undefinable, further explained.
12. The contrary shown in complex ideas, by instances of a statue...
13. Colours indefinable to the born-blind.
14. Complex ideas definable only when the simple ideas of which they...
15. Names of simple ideas of less doubtful meaning than those of...
16. Simple ideas have few ascents in linea praedicamentali.
17. Names of simple ideas not arbitrary, but perfectly taken from...

Chapter V: Of the Names of Mixed Modes and Relations

1. Mixed modes stand for abstract ideas, as other general names.
2. First, The abstract ideas they stand for are made by the...
3. Secondly, made arbitrarily, and without patterns.
4. How this is done.
6. Instances: murder, incest, stabbing.
7. But still subservient to the end of language, and not made at...
8. Whereof the intranslatable words of divers languages are a proof.
9. This shows species to be made for communication.
10. In mixed modes it is the name that ties the combination of...
11. Suitable to this, we find that men speaking of mixed modes,...
12. For the originals of our mixed modes, we look no further than...
13. Their being made by the understanding without patterns, shows...
14. Names of mixed modes stand always for their real essences, which...
15. Why their names are usually got before their ideas.
16. Reason of my being so large on this subject.

Chapter VI: Of the Names of Substances

1. The common names of substances stand for sorts.
2. The essence of each sort of substance is our abstract idea to...
3. The nominal and real essence different.
4. Nothing essential to individuals.
5. The only essences perceived by us in individual substances are...
6. Even the real essences of individual substances imply potential...
7. The nominal essence bounds the species for us.
8. The nature of species, as formed by us.
9. Not the real essence, or texture of parts, which we know not.
10. Not the substantial form, which we know less.
11. That the nominal essence is that only whereby we distinguish...
12. Of finite spirits there are probably numberless species, in a...
13. The nominal essence that of the species, as conceived by us,...
14. Difficulties in the supposition of a certain number of real...
15. A crude supposition.
16. Monstrous births.
17. Are monsters really a distinct species? Thirdly, It ought to...
18. Men can have no ideas of real essences.
19. Our nominal essences of substances not perfect collections of...
20. Hence names independent of real essences.
21. But stand for such a collection of simple substances, as we have...
22. Our abstract ideas are to us the measures of the species we...
23. Species in animals not distinguished by generation.
24. Not by substantial forms.
25. The specific essences that are commonly made by men.
26. Therefore very various and uncertain in the ideas of different...
27. Nominal essences of particular substances are undetermined by...
28. But not so arbitrary as mixed modes.
29. Our nominal essences of substances usually consist of a few...
30. Yet, imperfect as they thus are, they serve for common converse.
31. Essences of species under the same name very different in...
32. The more general our ideas of substances are, the more...
33. This all accommodated to the end of speech.
34. Instance in Cassowaries.
35. Men determine the sorts of substances, which may be sorted...
36. Nature makes the similitudes of substances.
37. The manner of sorting particular beings the work of fallible...
38. Each abstract idea, with a name to it, makes a nominal...
39. How genera and species are related to naming.
40. Species of artificial things less confused than natural.
41. Artificial things of distinct species.
42. Substances alone, of all our several sorts of ideas, have proper...
43. Difficult to lead another by words into the thoughts of things...
44. Instances of mixed modes named kinneah and niouph.
45. These words, kinneah and niouph, by degrees grew into common...
46. Instances of a species of substance named Zahab.
47. This piece of matter, thus denominated zahab by Adam, being...
48. The abstract ideas of substances always imperfect, and therefore...
49. Therefore to fix their nominal species, a real essense is...
50. Which supposition is of no use.
51. Conclusion.

Chapter VII: Of Particles

1. Particles connect parts, or whole sentences together.
2. In right use of particles consists the art of well-speaking.
3. They show what relation the mind gives to its own thoughts.
4. They are all marks of some action or intimation of the mind.
5. Instance in "but.
6. This matter of the use of particles but lightly touched here.

Chapter VIII: Of Abstract and Concrete Terms

1. Abstract terms not predictable one of another, and why.
2. They show the difference of our ideas.

Chapter IX: Of the Imperfection of Words

1. Words are used for recording and communicating our thoughts.
2. Any words will serve for recording.
3. Communication by words either for civil or philosophical...
4. The imperfection of words is the doubtfulness or ambiguity of...
5. Natural causes of their imperfection, especially in those that...
6. The names of mixed modes doubtful.
7. Secondly, because they have no standards in nature.
8. Common use, or propriety not a sufficient remedy.
9. The way of learning these names contributes also to their...
10. Hence unavoidable obscurity in ancient authors.
11. Names of substances of doubtful signification, because the ideas...
12. Names of substances referred, to real essences that cannot be...
13. To co-existing qualities, which are known but imperfectly.
14. Thirdly, to co-existing qualities which are known but...
15. With this imperfection, they may serve for civil, but not well...
16. Instance, liquor.
17. Instance, gold.
18. The names of simple ideas the least doubtful.
19. And next to them, simple modes.
20. The most doubtful are the names of very compounded mixed modes...
21. Why this imperfection charged upon words.
22. This should teach us moderation in imposing our own sense of old...
23. Especially of the Old and New Testament Scriptures.

Chapter X: Of the Abuse of Words

1. Woeful abuse of words.
2. Words are often employed without any, or without clear ideas.
3. II.
4. This occasioned by men learning names before they have the...
5. Unsteady application of them.
6. III.
7. Logic and dispute have much contributed to this.
8. Calling it "subtlety.
9. This learning very little benefits society.
10. But destroys the instruments of knowledge and communication.
11. As useful as to confound the sounds that the letters of the...
12. This art has perplexed religion and justice.
14. IV.
15. Instance, in matter.
16. This makes errors lasting.
17. V.
18. V.
19. Hence we think change of our complex ideas of substances not...
20. The cause of this abuse, a supposition of nature's working...
21. This abuse contains two false suppositions.
22. VI.
23. The ends of language: First, to convey our ideas.
24. To do it with quickness.
25. Therewith to convey the knowledge of things.
26. How men's words fail in all these: First, when used without...
27. When complex ideas are without names annexed to them.
28. When the same sign is not put for the same idea.
29. When words are diverted from their common use.
30. When they are names of fantastical imaginations.
31. Summary.
32. How men's words fail when they stand for substances.
33. How when they stand for modes and relations.
34. Seventhly, language is often abused by figurative speech.

Chapter XI: Of the Remedies of the Foregoing Imperfections

1. Remedies are worth seeking The natural and improved imperfections...
2. Are not easy to find.
3. But yet necessary to those who search after truth.
4. Misuse of words the great cause of errors.
5. Has made men more conceited and obstinate.
6. Addicted to wrangling about sounds.
7. Instance, bat and bird.
8. Remedies.
9. Second remedy: To have distinct, determinate ideas annexed to...
10. And distinct and conformable ideas in words that stand for...
11. Third remedy: To apply words to such ideas as common use has...
12. Fourth remedy: To declare the meaning in which we use them.
13. And that in three ways.
14. I.
15. II.
16. Morality capable of demonstration.
17. Definitions can make moral discourses clear.
18. And is the only way in which the meaning of mixed modes can be...
19. III.
20. Ideas of the leading qualities of substances are best got by...
21. And can hardly be made known otherwise.
22. The Ideas of the powers of substances are best known by...
23. A reflection on the knowledge of corporeal things possessed by...
24. IV Ideas of substances must be conformable to things.
25. Not easy to be made so.
26. V.
27. When not so used, the variation is to he explained.

BOOK IV: Of Knowledge and Probability

Chapter I: Of Knowledge in General

1. Our knowledge conversant about our ideas only.
2. Knowledge is the perception of the agreement or disagreement of...
3. This agreement or disagreement may be any of four sorts.
4. Of identity, or diversity in ideas.
5. Of abstract relations between ideas.
6. Of their necessary co-existence in substances.
7. Of real existence agreeing to any idea.
8. Knowledge is either actual or habitual.
9. Habitual knowledge is of two degrees.

Chapter II: Of the Degrees of our Knowledge

1. Of the degrees, or differences in clearness, of our knowledge: 1.
2. II.
3. Demonstration depends on clearly perceived proofs.
4. As certain, but not so easy and ready as intuitive knowledge.
5. The demonstrated conclusion not without doubt, precedent to the...
6. Not so clear as intuitive knowledge.
7. Each step in demonstrated knowledge must have intuitive evidence.
8. Hence the mistake, ex praecognitis, et praeconcessis.
9. Demonstration not limited to ideas of mathematical quantity.
10. Why it has been thought to be so limited.
11. Modes of qualities not demonstrable like modes of quantity.
12. Particles of light and simple ideas of colour.
13. The secondary qualities of things not discovered by...
14. Sensitive knowledge of the particular existence of finite beings...
15. Knowledge not always clear, where the ideas that enter into it...

Chapter III: Of the Extent of Human Knowledge

1. Extent of our knowledge.
2. It extends no further than we can perceive their agreement or...
3. Intuitive knowledge extends itself not to all the relations of...
4. Nor does demonstrative knowledge.
5. Sensitive knowledge narrower than either.
6. Our knowledge, therefore, narrower than our ideas.
7. How far our knowledge reaches.
8. Our knowledge of identity and diversity in ideas extends as far...
9. Of their co-existence, extends only a very little way.
10. Because the connexion between simple ideas in substances is...
11. Especially of the secondary qualities of bodies.
12. Because necessary connexion between any secondary and the...
13. We have no perfect knowledge of their primary qualities.
14. And seek in vain for certain and universal knowledge of...
15. Of repugnancy to co-exist, our knowledge is larger.
16. Our knowledge of the co-existence of powers in bodies extends...
17. Of the powers that co-exist in spirits yet narrower.
18. Of relations between abstracted ideas it is not easy to say...
19. Two things have made moral ideas to be thought incapable of...
20. Remedies of our difficulties in dealing demonstratively with...
21. Of the three real existences of which we have certain knowledge.
22. Our ignorance great.
23. One cause of our ignorance want of ideas.
24. Want of simple ideas that men are capable of having, but have...
25. Because of their minuteness.
26. Hence no science of bodies within our reach.
27. Much less a science of unembodied spirits.
28. Another cause, want of a discoverable connexion between ideas we...
29. Instances.
30. A third cause, want of tracing our ideas.
31. Extent of human knowledge in respect to its universality.

Chapter IV: Of the Reality of Knowledge

1. Objection.
2. Answer: "Not so, where ideas agree with things.
3. But what shall be the criterion of this agreement? It is...
4. As all simple ideas are really conformed to things.
5. All complex ideas, except ideas of substances, are their own...
6. Hence the reality of mathematical knowledge.
7. And of moral.
8. Existence not required to make abstract knowledge real.
9. Nor will it be less true or certain, because moral ideas are of...
10. Misnaming disturbs not the certainty of the knowledge.
11. Our complex ideas of substances have their archetypes without...
12. So far as our complex ideas agree with those archetypes...
13. In our inquiries about substances, we must consider ideas, and...
14. Objection against a changeling being something between a man and...
15. What will become of changelings in a future state? But,...
16. Monsters.
17. Words and species.
18. Recapitulation.

Chapter V: Of Truth in General

1. What truth is.
2. A right joining or separating of signs, i.
3. Which make mental or verbal propositions.
4. Mental propositions are very hard to he treated of.
5. Mental and verbal propositions contrasted.
6. When mental propositions contain real truth, and when verbal.
7. Objection against verbal truth, that "thus it may all be...
8. Answered, "Real truth is about ideas agreeing to things.
9. Truth and falsehood in general.
10. General propositions to be treated of more at large.
11. Moral and metaphysical truth.

Chapter VI: Of Universal Propositions: their Truth and Certainty

1. Treating of words necessary to knowledge.
2. General truths hardly to be understood, but in verbal...
3. Certainty twofold- of truth and of knowledge.
4. No proposition can be certainly known to be true, where the...
5. This more particularly concerns substances.
6. The truth of few universal propositions concerning substances...
7. Because necessary co-existence of simple ideas in substances...
8. Instance in gold.
9. No discoverable necessary connexion between nominal essence of...
10. As far as any such co-existence can be known, so far universal...
11. The qualities which make our complex ideas of substances...
12. Our nominal essences of substances furnish few universal...
13. Judgment of probability concerning substances may reach further:...
14. What is requisite for our knowledge of substances.
15. Whilst our complex ideas of substances contain not ideas of...
16. Wherein lies the general certainty of propositions.

Chapter VII: Of Maxims

1. Maxims or axioms are self-evident propositions.
2. Wherein that self-evidence consists.
3. Self-evidence not peculiar to received axioms.
4. I.
5. II.
6. III.
7. IV.
8. These axioms do not much influence our other knowledge.
9. Because maxims or axioms are not the truths we first knew.
10. Because on perception of them the other parts of our knowledge...
11. What use these general maxims or axioms have.
12. Maxims, if care he not taken in the use of words, may prove...
13. Instance in vacuum.
14. But they prove not the existence of things without us.
15. They cannot add to our knowledge of substances, and their...
16. Instance in demonstrations about man, which can only be...
17. Another instance.
18. A third instance.
19. Little use of these maxims in proofs where we have clear and...
20. Their use dangerous, where our ideas are not determined.

Chapter VIII: Of Trifling Propositions

1. Some propositions bring no increase to our knowledge.
2. I.
3. Examples.
4. II.
5. As part of the definition of the term defined.
6. Instance, man and palfrey.
7. For this teaches but the signification of words.
8. But adds no real knowledge.
9. General propositions concerning substances are often trifling.
10. And why.
11. Thirdly, using words variously is trifling with them.
12. Marks of verbal propositions.
13. A part of the definition predicated of any term.

Chapter IX: Of our Threefold Knowledge of Existence

1. General propositions that are certain concern not existence.
2. A threefold knowledge of existence.
3. Our knowledge of our own existence is intuitive.

Chapter X: Of our Knowledge of the Existence of a God

1. We are capable of knowing certainly that there is a God.
2. For man knows that he himself exists.
4. And that eternal Being must be most powerful.
5. And most knowing.
6. And therefore God.
7. Our idea of a most perfect Being, not the sole proof of a God.
8. Recapitulation- something from eternity.
9. Two sorts of beings, cogitative and incogitative.
10. Incogitative being cannot produce a cogitative being.
11. Therefore, there has been an eternal cogitative Being.
12. The attributes of the eternal cogitative Being.
13. Whether the eternal Mind may he also material or no.
14. Not material: first, because each particle of matter is not...
15. II.
16. III.
17. And that whether this corporeal system is in motion or at...
18. Matter not co-eternal with an eternal Mind.
19. Objection: "Creation out of nothing.

Chapter XI: Of our Knowledge of the Existence of Other Things

1. Knowledge of the existence of other finite beings is to be had...
2. Instance: whiteness of this paper.
3. This notice by our senses, though not so certain as...
4. I.
5. II.
6. III.
7. IV.
8. This certainty is as great as our condition needs.
9. But reaches no further than actual sensation.
10. Folly to expect demonstration in everything.
11. Past existence of other things is known by memory.
12. The existence of other finite spirits not knowable, and rests on...
13. Only particular propositions concerning concrete existences...
14. And all general propositions that are known to be true concern...

Chapter XII: Of the Improvement of our Knowledge

1. Knowledge is not got from maxims.
2. (The occasion of that opinion.
3. But from comparing clear and distinct ideas.
4. Dangerous to build upon precarious principles.
5. To do so is no certain way to truth.
6. But to compare clear, complete ideas, under steady names.
7. The true method of advancing knowledge is by considering our...
8. By which morality also may he made clearer.
9. Our knowledge of substances is to be improved, not by...
10. Experience may procure us convenience, not science.
11. We are fitted for moral science, but only for probable...
12. In the study of nature we must beware of hypotheses and wrong...
13. The true use of hypotheses.
14. Clear and distinct ideas with settled names, and the finding...
15. Mathematics an instance of this.

Chapter XIII: Some Further Considerations Concerning our Knowledge

1. Our knowledge partly necessary, partly voluntary.
2. The application of our faculties voluntary; but, they being...
3. Instance in numbers.
4. Instance in natural religion.

Chapter XIV: Of Judgment

1. Our knowledge being short, we want something else.
2. What use to be made of this twilight state.
3. Judgment, or assent to probability, supplies our want of...
4. Judgement is the presuming things to be so, without perceiving...

Chapter XV: Of Probability

1. Probability is the appearance of agreement upon fallible...
2. It is to supply our want of knowledge.
3. Being that which makes us presume things to be true, before we...
4. The grounds of probability are two: conformity with our own...
5. In this, all the arguments pro and con ought to be examined,...
6. Probable arguments capable of great variety.

Chapter XVI: Of the Degrees of Assent

1. Our assent ought to be regulated by the grounds of probability.
2. These cannot always be actually in view; and then we must content...
3. The ill consequence of this, if our former judgments were not...
4. The right use of it, mutual charity and forbearance, in a...
5. Probability is either of sensible matter of fact, capable of...
6. The concurrent experience of all other men with ours, produces...
7. II.
8. III.
9. Experience and testimonies clashing infinitely vary the degrees...
10. Traditional testimonies, the further removed the less their...
11. Yet history is of great use.
12. In things which sense cannot discover, analogy is the great rule...
13. One case where contrary experience lessens not the testimony.
14. The bare testimony of divine revelation is the highest...

Chapter XVII: Of Reason

1. Various significations of the word "reason".
2. Wherein reasoning consists.
3. Reason in its four degrees.
4. Whether syllogism is the great instrument of reason: first...
5. Syllogism helps little in demonstration, less in probability.
6. Serves not to increase our knowledge, but to fence with the...
7. Other helps to reason than syllogism should be sought.
8. We can reason about particulars; and the immediate object of...
9. Our reason often fails us.
10. II.
11. III.
12. IV.
13. V.
14. Our highest degree of knowledge is intuitive, without reasoning.
15. The next is got by reasoning.
16. To supply the narrowness of demonstrative and intuitive...
17. Intuitive knowledge is the perception of the certain agreement...
18. Consequences of words, and consequences of ideas.
19. Four sorts of arguments.
20. II.
21. III.
22. IV.
23. Above, contrary, and according to reason.
24. Reason and faith not opposite, for faith must be regulated by...

Chapter XVIII: Of Faith and Reason, and their Distinct Provinces

1. Necessary to know their boundaries.
2. Faith and reason, what, as contradistinguished.
3. No new simple idea can be conveyed by traditional revelation.
4. Traditional revelation may make us know propositions knowable...
5. Even original revelation cannot be admitted against the clear...
6. Traditional revelation much less.
7. Things above reason are, when revealed, the proper matter of...
8. Or not contrary to reason, if revealed, are matter of faith;...
9. Revelation in matters where reason cannot judge, or but probably,...
10. In matters where reason can afford certain knowledge, that is to...
11. If the boundaries be not set between faith and reason, no...

Chapter XIX: Of Enthusiasm

1. Love of truth necessary.
2. A forwardness to dictate another's beliefs, from whence.
3. Force of enthusiasm, in which reason is taken away.
4. Reason and revelation.
5. Rise of enthusiasm.
6. Enthusiastic impulse.
7. What is meant by enthusiasm.
8. Enthusiasm accepts its supposed illumination without search and...
9. Enthusiasm how to be discovered.
10. The supposed internal light examined.
11. Enthusiasm fails of evidence, that the proposition is from...
12. Firmness of persuasion no Proof that any proposition is from...
13. Light in the mind, what.
14. Revelation must be judged of by reason.
15. Belief no proof of revelation.
16. Criteria of a divine revelation.

Chapter XX: Of Wrong Assent, or Error

1. Causes of error, or how men come to give assent contrary to...
2. First cause of error, want of proofs.
3. Objection.
4. People hindered from inquiry.
5. Second cause of error, want of skill to use proofs.
6. Third cause of error, want of will to use them.
7. Fourth cause of error, wrong measures of Probability.
8. I.
9. Instilled in childhood.
10. Of irresistible efficacy.
11. II.
12. III.
13. Two means of evading probabilities: I.
14. Supposed unknown arguments for the contrary.
15. What probabilities naturally determine the assent.
16. Where it is in our power to suspend our judgment.
17. IV.
18. Not so many men in errors as is commonly supposed.

Chapter XXI: Of the Division of the Sciences

1. Science may be divided into three sorts.
2. Physica.
3. Practica.
4. Semeiotike.
5. This is the first and most general division of the objects of our...

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