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2011高考實(shí)用英語語法筆記(二)
Chapter 7. 動(dòng)詞不定式
一、概念:
動(dòng)詞不定式由to+動(dòng)詞原形構(gòu)成。這里的to是不定式標(biāo)志,沒有詞義。不定式具有名詞、形容詞或副詞的某些語法功能,又有動(dòng)詞的時(shí)態(tài)和語態(tài)的特點(diǎn)及作用。
常見的形式如表所示(以及物動(dòng)詞do為例),不及物動(dòng)詞沒有被動(dòng)語態(tài)。
時(shí)態(tài)\語態(tài)
主動(dòng)
被動(dòng)
一般式
to do
to be done
進(jìn)行式
to be doing
/
完成式
to have done
to have been done
完成進(jìn)行式
to have been doing
/
二、相關(guān)知識(shí)點(diǎn)精講:
1、有些動(dòng)詞可以用不定式作賓語,大致上有三種情況。
1)有些及物動(dòng)詞用不定式作賓語,結(jié)構(gòu)為動(dòng)詞+不定式。例如:
afford
aim
agree
arrange
ask
decide
bother
care
choose
demand
desire
determine
elect
endeavor
hope
fail
help
learn
long 渴望
mean
manage
offer
plan
pretend
refuse
tend
undertake
expect
hate
intend
例如:The driver failed to see the other car in time. 司機(jī)沒能及時(shí)看見另一輛車。
He offered to help me. 他表示愿意幫助我。
2)有些動(dòng)詞除了可以用不定式作賓語,還用不定式作補(bǔ)語,即有動(dòng)詞+賓語+不定式的結(jié)構(gòu)。例如:
ask
choose
expect
help
want
beg
intend
like/love
need
prefer
prepare
wish
例如:I like you to keep everything tidy.我喜歡你使每件東西都保持整潔。
3)有些動(dòng)詞或動(dòng)詞詞組可以用動(dòng)詞+疑問詞+不定式的結(jié)構(gòu)作賓語。例如:
decide
know
consider
forget
learn
explain
remember
show,
wonder
find out
tell
inquire
例如:There are so many kinds of tape-recorders on sale that I can't make up my mind which to buy.
2、不定式作補(bǔ)語
1)有些有動(dòng)詞+賓語+不定式的結(jié)構(gòu)。例如:
advise
allow
cause
challenge
command
urge
compel
drive 驅(qū)使
enable
encourage
forbid
force
train
impel
induce
instruct
invite
like/love
order
tell
permit
make
let
have
want
get
send
warn
persuade
request
例如:Father will not allow us to play on the street./The officer ordered his men to fire.
注:有些動(dòng)詞如make,have,get,want等可用不定式作做賓補(bǔ),也可用分詞作賓補(bǔ)?,F(xiàn)在分詞表達(dá)主動(dòng),也表達(dá)正在進(jìn)行,過去分詞表達(dá)被動(dòng)。
2)有些有動(dòng)詞+賓語+不定式的結(jié)構(gòu),不定式的動(dòng)詞往往是be,不定式一般可以省去。例如:consider、find、believe、think、declare(聲稱)、appoint、guess、fancy(設(shè)想)、guess、judge、imagine、know。
例如:Charles Babbage is generally considered to have invented the first computer.
3)有些動(dòng)詞可以跟there +to be的結(jié)構(gòu)。例如:believe、expect、intend、like、love、mean、prefer、want、wish、understand。
例如:We didn't expect there to be so many people there. 我們沒料到會(huì)有那么多人在那里。
3、不定式作主語
不定式作主語,往往用it作形式主語,真正的主語不定式放至句子的后面。
例如:It's necessary for you to lock the car when you do not use it. 不用車的時(shí)候,鎖車是有必要的。
It seemed selfish of him not to give them anything. 他不給他們?nèi)魏螙|西,這顯得太自私了。
但是,用不定式作主語的句子中還有一個(gè)不定式作表語時(shí),不能用It is… to…的句型。另外,這樣的句子,不能用動(dòng)名詞作表語。
4、It's for sb.和 It's of sb.
句子中,由于表語形容詞性質(zhì)的不同,導(dǎo)致了不定式邏輯主語標(biāo)志用for或of的區(qū)別。
1)for sb.句型中的形容詞一般為表示事物的特征特點(diǎn),表示客觀形式的形容詞,如easy, hard, difficult, interesting, impossible等:例如:It's very hard for him to study two languages. 對(duì)他來說學(xué)兩門外語是很難的。
2)of sb句型中的形容詞一般為表示性格,品德,心智能力,表示主觀感情或態(tài)度的形容詞,如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。例如:It's very nice of you to help me. 你來幫助我,你真是太好了。
用for還是用of 的另一種辨別方法:用介詞for或of后面的邏輯主語作句子的主語,用介詞前邊的形容詞作表語,造個(gè)句子。如果通順用of,不通則用for。
5、不定式作表語:不定式可放在be動(dòng)詞后面,形成表語。例如:My work is to clean the room every day.
6、不定式作定語:不定式做定語通常要放在被修飾的詞后,往往表示未發(fā)生的動(dòng)作。例如:There was nothing to bring home that morning.
7、不定式作狀語
1)目的狀語:常用結(jié)構(gòu)為to do , only to do(僅僅為了), in order to do, so as to do, so(such)… as to…(如此…以便…)。例如:
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus. 他飛快地跑以便趕上第一班車。
I come here only to say good-bye to you. 我來僅僅是向你告別。
2)作結(jié)果狀語,可以表示沒有預(yù)料到的或事與愿違的結(jié)果,不定式要放在句子后面。
I awoke to find my truck gone. 我醒來發(fā)現(xiàn)箱子不見了。
He searched the room only to find nothing. 他搜索了房間,沒發(fā)現(xiàn)什么。
3)表原因,例如:She wept to see the sight. 她一看到這情形就哭了。
4)表示理由和條件,例如:You will do well to speak more carefully.
8、用作介詞的to:to可以用作介詞,也可用作不定式的標(biāo)示。下面的to都用作介詞:admit to、object to、be accustomed to、be used to、stick to、turn to開始、look forward to、be devoted to、pay attention to、contribute to、apologize to、devote oneself to
9、省去to 的動(dòng)詞不定式
1)情態(tài)動(dòng)詞(除ought 外) 后。
2)使役動(dòng)詞 let, have, make后,感官動(dòng)詞 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后。
注:被動(dòng)語態(tài)中不能省去to。例如:The boss made them work the whole night. =They were made to work the whole night.
3) would rather,had better句型后;
4) Why… / why no…句型后;
5) help后可帶to,也可不帶to, help sb(to) do sth;
6) but和except后。but前是實(shí)義動(dòng)詞do時(shí),后面出現(xiàn)的不定式不帶to。
7)由and, or和than連接的兩個(gè)不定式,第二個(gè)to 可以省去:
8)通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think等詞后作賓補(bǔ)時(shí),可以省去to be。例如:He is supposed (to be) nice.
10、動(dòng)詞不定式的否定式:在不定式標(biāo)志to前加上not。例如:She pretended not to see me when I passed by.
11、不定式的特殊句型
1) too…to…句型:
①too…to,太…以至于…。例如:He is too excited to speak. 他太激動(dòng)了,說不出話來。
②如在too前有否定詞,則整個(gè)句子用否定詞表達(dá)肯定,too 后那個(gè)詞表達(dá)一種委婉含義,意 為"不太"。例如:
It's never too late to mend.  改過不嫌晚。(諺語)
③當(dāng)too 前面有only, all, but時(shí),意思是:非常… 等于very。例如:
I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 能幫助你我非常高興。
He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。
2)so as to句型:
①表示目的;它的否定式是so as not to do。例如:Go in quietly so as not to wake the baby.輕點(diǎn)進(jìn)去,別驚醒了嬰兒。
②表示結(jié)果。例如:Would you be so kind as to tell me the time? 勞駕,現(xiàn)在幾點(diǎn)了。
3)Why not句型:"Why not +動(dòng)詞原形"表達(dá)向某人提出建議,翻譯為:"為什么不……?" "干嗎不……?"。例如:
Why not take a holiday?  干嗎不去度假?
12、不定式的時(shí)態(tài)和語態(tài)
1)一般式表示的動(dòng)詞,有時(shí)與謂語動(dòng)詞表示的動(dòng)作同時(shí)發(fā)生,有時(shí)發(fā)生在謂語動(dòng)詞的動(dòng)作之后,例如
I hope to see you again. = I hope that I'll see you again. 我希望再見到你。
2)完成式表示的動(dòng)作發(fā)生在謂語動(dòng)詞表示的動(dòng)作之前。例如:I'm sorry to have given you so much trouble.
3)進(jìn)行式表示動(dòng)作正在進(jìn)行,與謂語動(dòng)詞表示的動(dòng)作同時(shí)發(fā)生。例如:He seems to be eating something.
4)完成進(jìn)行式表示動(dòng)作從過去開始并延續(xù)至說話的時(shí)候。例如:
She is known to have been working on the problem for many years. 我們知道她研究這問題有好幾年了。
13、動(dòng)名詞與不定式
1)動(dòng)名詞與不定式的區(qū)別:
動(dòng)名詞表達(dá)的是:狀態(tài),性質(zhì),心境,抽象,經(jīng)常性,已發(fā)生的;不定式表達(dá)的是:目的,結(jié)果,原因,具體,一次性,將發(fā)生的。
2)有些動(dòng)詞如continue接不定式或動(dòng)名詞作賓語,意義基本相同。
3)有些動(dòng)詞如continue接不定式或動(dòng)名詞作賓語,意義大相徑庭。常見的,在特殊詞精講中專門討論。
14、特殊詞精講
動(dòng)詞
動(dòng)詞形式
例句
stop
stop to do:停止,中斷做某事后去做另一件事
stop doing:停止做某事。
She reached the top of the hill and stopped to rest on a big rock by the side of the path.
forget
forget to do:忘記要去做某事
forget doing:忘記做過某事。
He forgot turning the light off. 他忘記他已經(jīng)關(guān)了燈了。(已做過關(guān)燈的動(dòng)作)
remember
remember to do:記得去做某事,
remember doing:記得做過某事。
Don't you remember seeing the man before?你不記得以前見過那個(gè)人嗎?
regret
regret to do:對(duì)將要做的事遺憾,
regret doing:對(duì)做過的事遺憾、后悔。
I don't regret telling her what I thought.
cease
cease to do:長(zhǎng)時(shí)間,甚至永遠(yuǎn)停做某事,
cease doing:短時(shí)停止做某事,以后還會(huì)接著做。
The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by.
try
try to do:努力,企圖做某事,
try doing:試驗(yàn),試著做某事。
I tried gardening but didn't succeed.
You must try to be more careful.
go on
go on to do:做了一件事后,接著做另一件事,
go on doing:繼續(xù)做原來做的事。
After he had finished his maths,he went on to do his physics.
Go on doing the other exercise after you have finished this one.
be interested
be interested to do對(duì)做某事感興趣,想了解某事,
interested in doing對(duì)某種想法感興趣。
I shall be interested to know what happens.
我很想知道發(fā)生了什么事。(想了解)
mean
mean to do 打算、想,mean doing意味著。
I mean to go, but my father would not allow me to.
be afraid
be afraid to do:不敢,膽怯去做某事,是主觀上的原因不去做,意為"怕",be afraid of doing:擔(dān)心出現(xiàn)doing的狀況、結(jié)果。doing 是客觀上造成的,意為"生怕,恐怕"。
She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake.
她生怕被蛇咬著,不敢在草叢中再走一步。
感官動(dòng)詞 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do表示動(dòng)作的完整性,+doing 表示動(dòng)作的進(jìn)行性。
例如:I saw him work in the garden yesterday. 昨天我看見他在花園里干活了。(強(qiáng)調(diào)"我看見了"這個(gè)事實(shí))
I saw him working in the garden yesterday.(強(qiáng)調(diào)"我見他正干活"這個(gè)動(dòng)作)昨天我見他正在花園里干活。
典型例題:The missing boy was last seen ___ near the river.
A. playing  B. to be playing  C. play  D. to play
答案:A. 本題強(qiáng)調(diào)其動(dòng)作,正在河邊玩,應(yīng)此用see sb. doing sth句型。
Chapter 8. 分詞
一、概念:
分詞既有動(dòng)詞的特征,由有形容詞和副詞的特征。分詞有現(xiàn)在分詞和過去分詞兩種?,F(xiàn)在分詞有一般式和完成式,過去分詞沒有這種區(qū)別。及物動(dòng)詞的現(xiàn)在分詞還有主動(dòng)形式和被動(dòng)形式的區(qū)別。分詞常用的形式如表所示(以及物動(dòng)詞do 和不及物動(dòng)詞go為例):
do
go
主動(dòng)
被動(dòng)
現(xiàn)在分詞
doing
being done
going
過去分詞
/
done
gone
完成式
having done
having been done
/
二、相關(guān)知識(shí)點(diǎn)精講:
1、分詞作定語
不及物動(dòng)詞的現(xiàn)在分詞作定語表達(dá)強(qiáng)調(diào)動(dòng)作正在進(jìn)行,過去分詞強(qiáng)調(diào)完成;及物動(dòng)詞的現(xiàn)在分詞作定語強(qiáng)調(diào)主動(dòng),過去分詞強(qiáng)調(diào)被動(dòng)。分詞的完成式一般不作定語。分詞作其他成分時(shí),也是如此。分詞作定語,單個(gè)的分詞作定語一般前置;分詞詞組,個(gè)別分詞如given, left等,修飾不定代詞等的分詞,作定語需后置。例如:
We can see the rising sun./ He is a retired worker./ This is the question given.
注:分詞作定語相當(dāng)于定語從句,如Most of the people invited to the party were famous scientists. = Most of the people who wereinvited to the party were famous scientists.
2、分詞作狀語
①現(xiàn)在分詞短語可以表示一個(gè)同時(shí)發(fā)生的次要的或伴隨的動(dòng)作:
Following Tom, we started to climb the mountain./Opening the drawer, he took out a box.
②現(xiàn)在分詞短語還可以表示原因, 相當(dāng)于一個(gè)原因狀語從句:
Not knowing her address, we couldn’t get in touch with her./Being unemployed, he hasn’t got much money.
③現(xiàn)在分詞短語還可以表示時(shí)間, 相當(dāng)于一個(gè)時(shí)間狀語從句:
Hearing the news, they all jumped with joy./Having found a hotel, we looked for somewhere to have dinner.
Followed by some officials, Napoleon inspected his army.= With some officials following, Napoleon inspected his army.
注:選擇現(xiàn)在分詞還是過去分詞,關(guān)鍵看主句的主語。如分詞的動(dòng)作是主句的主語發(fā)出,分詞就選用現(xiàn)在分詞(主動(dòng)),反之就用過去分詞(被動(dòng))。
3、連詞+分詞(短語)
有時(shí)為使分詞短語與主句關(guān)系更清楚,可在分詞前加連詞。 連詞有: when,while,if though,after, before, as. 但分詞的主語和主句的主語必須為同一個(gè)。例如:
While waiting there, he saw two pretty girls come out of the building.
4、分詞作補(bǔ)語
通常在感官動(dòng)詞和使役動(dòng)詞see,hear,catch,find,keep,have等之后。例如:I found my car missing. /I 'll have my watch repaired.
5、分詞作表語
表示主語的狀態(tài)等,很多動(dòng)詞的現(xiàn)在分詞都可以作表語,如:exciting, interesting, encouraging, disappointing, confusing, touching, puzzling.。例如:She looked tired with cooking./ He remained standing beside the table.
6、分詞作插入語
分詞作插入語的結(jié)構(gòu)是固定的,意思上的主語并不是句子的主語。例如:generally speaking 一般說來、strictly speaking 嚴(yán)格的說、judging from 從…判斷、all things considered 從整體來看、taking all things into consideration 全面看來
Judging from his face, he must be ill./Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs.
7、分詞的時(shí)態(tài)
1)一般式表示與主語動(dòng)詞同時(shí)發(fā)生。例如:
Hearing the news, he jumped with joy. /Arriving there, they found the boy dead.
The secretary worked late into the night, preparing a long speech for the president.
2)完成時(shí)表示先于主語動(dòng)詞發(fā)生。例如:
While walking in the garden,he hurt his leg. 在花園里散步時(shí)他傷了腿。
分詞作時(shí)間狀語,如果先與主動(dòng)詞的動(dòng)作,且強(qiáng)調(diào)先后, 要用having done。
Having finished his homework, he went out. =As he had finished his homework, he went out.
8、分詞的語態(tài)
1)通常,現(xiàn)在分詞表示主動(dòng),過去分詞表示被動(dòng)。例如:
He is the man giving you the money. (= who gave you…)他就是給你錢的那個(gè)人。
He is the man stopped by the car. (= who was stopped by…)他就是那個(gè)被車攔住的人。
2)不及物動(dòng)詞的過去分詞表示動(dòng)作已經(jīng)發(fā)生,如gone, fallen, retired, grown-up, escaped, faded, returned等。
Chapter 9. 動(dòng)名詞
一、概念:
動(dòng)名詞是非限定動(dòng)詞的一種形式,由動(dòng)詞原形+ing構(gòu)成。它既有動(dòng)詞的特征,又有名詞的特征,是一種非謂語動(dòng)詞形式。動(dòng)名詞也有時(shí)態(tài)和語態(tài)的變化,如表所示(以及物動(dòng)詞write為例),不及物動(dòng)詞沒有語態(tài)的變化。
時(shí)態(tài)/語態(tài)
主動(dòng)
被動(dòng)
一般式
writing
being written
完成式
having written
having been written
二、相關(guān)知識(shí)點(diǎn)精講:
1、動(dòng)名詞作主語,例如:Fighting broke out between the South and the North.
2、動(dòng)名詞作賓語:
1)有些動(dòng)詞可以用動(dòng)名詞作賓語。例如:
admit 承認(rèn)
appreciate 感激
avoid 避免
complete完成
consider認(rèn)為
delay 耽誤
deny 否認(rèn)
detest 討厭
endure 忍受
enjoy 喜歡
escape 逃脫
fancy 想象
finish 完成
imagine 想象
mind 介意
miss 想念
postpone推遲
practice 訓(xùn)練
recall 回憶
resent 討厭
resume 繼續(xù)
resist 抵抗
risk 冒險(xiǎn)
suggest 建議
face 面對(duì)
include 包括
stand 忍受
understand 理解
forgive 寬恕
keep 繼續(xù)
例如:Would you mind turning down your radio a little, please? 你把收音機(jī)音量調(diào)小一點(diǎn),好嗎
The squirrel was lucky that it just missed being caught. 這松鼠幸運(yùn)得很,剛逃避了被逮住的厄運(yùn)。
2)有些結(jié)構(gòu)后面可以用動(dòng)名詞作賓語或其他成分。例如:
admit to
prefer…to
be used to
lead to
devote oneself to
object to
stick to
no good
no use
be fond of
look forward to
be proud of
be busy
can't help
be tired of
be capable of
be afraid of
think of
burst out
keep on
insist on
count on
set about
put off
be good at
take up
give up
be successful in
3)作表語,對(duì)主語說明、解釋。例如:Her job is washing, cleaning and taking care of the children.
4)作定語,一般表示所修飾名詞事物的用途。例如:a writing desk=a desk for writing 寫字臺(tái)
有些動(dòng)名詞作定語,與所修飾的名詞關(guān)系比較復(fù)雜。例如:boiling point=a temperature point at which something begins to boil
3、worth 的用法
worth, worthy, worthwhile都是形容詞,意為"值得"。
1)worth: be worth + n.;be worth doing sth.;It’s worth while to do./ It ’s worth(someone’s)while doing;例如:
The question is not worth discussing again and again. 這問題不值得反復(fù)討論。
2)worthy:be worthy of +n.當(dāng)名詞為抽象名詞時(shí)表示"……值得……"
be worthy to be done "某事值得被做"
例如:The question is not worthy to be discussed again and again.
3)worthwhile:be worthwhile to do sth"值得做某事"
例如:It is worthwhile to ask him to join the club.值得邀請(qǐng)他加入俱樂部。
Chapter 10. 形容詞和副詞
一、概念:
形容詞修飾名詞,說明事物或人的性質(zhì)或特征。通常,可將形容詞分成性質(zhì)形容詞和敘述形容詞兩類,其位置不一定都放在名詞前面。其中直接說明事物的性質(zhì)或特征的形容詞是性質(zhì)形容詞,它有級(jí)的變化,可以用程度副詞修飾,在句中可作定語、表語和補(bǔ)語。例如:hot。敘述形容詞只能作表語,所以又稱為表語形容詞。這類形容詞沒有級(jí)的變化,也不可用程度副詞修飾。大多數(shù)以a開頭的形容詞都屬于這一類。如:afraid,well,unwell,ill,faint,afraid,alike,alive,alone,asleep,awake 等。
例如:He is an ill man.(×);The man is ill.(√);
形容詞作定語修飾名詞時(shí),要放在名詞的前邊。但是如果形容詞修飾以-thing為字尾的詞語時(shí),要放在這些詞之后。例如:something nice.
副詞主要用來修飾動(dòng)詞,形容詞,副詞或其他結(jié)構(gòu)。
二、相關(guān)知識(shí)點(diǎn)精講:
1、形容詞與副詞:
1)大部分形容詞加-ly可構(gòu)成副詞。但 friendly,deadly,lovely,lonely,likely,lively,ugly,brotherly,仍為形容詞。
2)有些以-ly結(jié)尾既為形容詞,也為副詞,如daily,weekly,monthly,yearly,early等。例如:
The Times is a weekly paper./ The Times is published weekly.
2、用形容詞表示類別和整體:
1)某些形容詞加上定冠詞可以泛指一類人,與謂語動(dòng)詞的復(fù)數(shù)連接,如the dead,the living,the rich,the poor,the blind,the hungry等。例如:The poor are losing hope.
2) 有關(guān)國(guó)家和民族的形容詞加上定冠詞指這個(gè)民族的整體,與動(dòng)詞的復(fù)數(shù)連用,如the British,the English,the French,the Chinese等。例如:The English have wonderful sense of humor.
3、多個(gè)形容詞修飾名詞的順序:
多個(gè)形容詞修飾名詞時(shí),其順序?yàn)椋合薅ㄔ~→數(shù)詞→描繪詞→(大小,長(zhǎng)短,形狀,新舊,顏色)→出處→材料性質(zhì)→類別→名詞。例如:a small round table/ a tall gray building/ a dirty old brown shirt/an expensive Japanese sports car
4、副詞的位置:①在動(dòng)詞之前。②在be動(dòng)詞、助動(dòng)詞之后。③多個(gè)助動(dòng)詞時(shí),副詞一般放在第一個(gè)助動(dòng)詞后。
注:①大多數(shù)方式副詞位于句尾,但賓語過長(zhǎng),副詞可以提前,以使句子平衡。例如:
We could see very clearly a strange light ahead of us.我們清楚地看到前面有奇怪的光。
②方式副詞well,badly,hard等只放在句尾。例如:He speaks English well.
5、副詞的排列順序:
1)時(shí)間,地點(diǎn)副詞,小單位的在前,大單位在后。
2)方式副詞,短的在前,長(zhǎng)的在后,并用and或but等連詞連接。例如:Please write slowly and carefully.
3)多個(gè)不同副詞排列:程度+地點(diǎn)+方式+時(shí)間副詞。
注:①副詞very可以修飾形容詞,但不能修飾動(dòng)詞。
②副詞enough要放在形容詞的后面,形容詞enough放在名詞前后都可。例如:There is food enough for everyone to eat.
6、兼有兩種形式的副詞:
副詞
意義
例句
close與closely
close意思是"近";closely 意思是"仔細(xì)地"
He is sitting close to me. 他就坐在我邊上。
Watch him closely. 盯著他。
late 與lately
late意思是"晚";lately 意思是"最近"
You have come too late. 你來得太晚了。
What have you been doing lately? 近來好嗎?
deep與deeply
deep意思是"深",表示空間深度;deeply時(shí)常表示感情上的深度,"深深地"。
He pushed the stick deep into the mud.他把棍子深深插進(jìn)泥里。
Even father was deeply moved by the film.老爸也被電影深深打動(dòng)了。
high與highly
high表示空間高度;highly表示程度,相當(dāng)于much。
The plane was flying high. 這架飛機(jī)飛得很高。
I think highly of your opinion. 你的看法很有道理。
wide與widely
wide表示空間寬度;widely意思是"廣泛地","在許多地方"。
He opened the door wide. 他把門開得大大的。
English is widely used in the world.英語在世界范圍內(nèi)廣泛使用。
free與freely
free的意思是"免費(fèi)";freely 的意思是"無限制地"。
You can eat free in my restaurant whenever you like.
You may speak freely; say what you like.
7、形容詞與副詞的比較級(jí):
大多數(shù)形容詞(性質(zhì)形容詞)和副詞有比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)的變化,即原級(jí)、比較級(jí)和最高級(jí),用來表示事物的等級(jí)差別。原級(jí)即形容詞的原形,比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)有規(guī)則變化和不規(guī)則變化兩種。
1)規(guī)則變化:?jiǎn)我艄?jié)詞和少數(shù)雙音節(jié)詞,加詞尾-er,-est來構(gòu)成比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)。
構(gòu)成法
原級(jí)
比較級(jí)
最高級(jí)
一般單音節(jié)詞未尾加-er,-est
tall
taller
tallest
以不發(fā)音的e結(jié)尾的單音詞和少數(shù)以- le結(jié)尾的雙音節(jié)詞只加-r,-st
nice
nicer
nicest
以一個(gè)輔音字母結(jié)尾的閉音節(jié)單音節(jié)詞,雙寫結(jié)尾的輔音字母,再加-er,-est
big
bigger
biggest
"以輔音字母+y"結(jié)尾的雙音節(jié)詞,改y為i,再加-er,-est
busy
busier
busiest
少數(shù)以-er,-ow結(jié)尾的雙音節(jié)詞未尾加-er,-est
narrow
narrower
narrowest
其他雙音節(jié)詞和多音節(jié)詞,在前面加more,most來構(gòu)成比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)
important
more important
most important
2) 不規(guī)則變化
原級(jí)
比較級(jí)
最高級(jí)
good
better
best
well(健康的)
worse
worst
bad
ill(有病的)
old
older/elder
oldest/eldest
much/many
more
most
little
less
least
far
farther/further
farthest/furthest
8、as +形容詞或副詞原級(jí)+ as:
1)在否定句或疑問句中可用so… as。例如:He cannot run so/as fast as you. 他沒你跑得快。
2)當(dāng)as… as 中間有名詞時(shí)采用以下格式:as +形容詞+ a +單數(shù)名詞/ as + many/much +名詞。例如:
This is as good an example as the other is. 這個(gè)例子和另外一個(gè)一樣好。
I can carry as much paper as you can. 你能搬多少紙,我也能。
3)用表示倍數(shù)的詞或其他程度副詞做修飾語時(shí),放在as的前面。例如:This room is twice as big as that one.
4)倍數(shù)+ as + adj. + as<=>倍數(shù)+ the … + of。例如:
This bridge is three times as long as that one. =This bridge is three times the length of that one.
9、比較級(jí)形容詞或副詞 + than,例如:They lights in your room are brighter than those in mine.你房間的那些燈比我房間里的亮。
注:①要避免重復(fù)使用比較級(jí)。②要避免將主語含在比較對(duì)象中。③要注意對(duì)應(yīng)句型,遵循前后一致的原則。④要注意定冠詞在比較級(jí)中的使用。例如:
China is larger than any country in Asia.(×)/China is larger than any other countries in Asia.(√)
Which is larger, Canada or Australia?/Which is the larger country, Canada or Australia?
10、可修飾比較級(jí)的詞:①a bit, a little, rather, much, far, by far, many, a lot, lots, a great deal, any, still, even等。②還可以用表示倍數(shù)的詞或度量名詞作修飾語。③以上詞(除by far)外,必須置于比較級(jí)形容詞或副詞的前面。
11、many, old 和 far
1)如果后接名詞時(shí),much more +不可數(shù)名詞,many more +可數(shù)名詞復(fù)數(shù)。
2) old有兩種比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)形式:older/oldest 和elder/eldest。elder,eldest只用于兄弟姐妹的長(zhǎng)幼關(guān)系。例如:
My elder brother is an engineer. 我哥哥是個(gè)工程師。
Mary is the eldest of the three sisters. 瑪麗是三姐妹中最大的。
3) far有兩種比較級(jí),farther,further。一般father 表示距離,further表示進(jìn)一步。例如:I have nothing further to say.
12、the+最高級(jí)+比較范圍:
1)形容詞最高級(jí)前通常必須用定冠詞the,副詞最高級(jí)前可不用。例如:The Sahara is the biggest desert in the world.
形容詞most前面沒有the,不表示最高級(jí)的含義,只表示"非常"。例如:
It is a most important problem. =It is a very important problem. 這是個(gè)很重要的問題。
注:使用最高級(jí)要注意將主語包括在比較范圍內(nèi)。
2)下列詞可修飾最高級(jí),by far, far, much, mostly, almost。例如:This hat is nearly / almost the biggest.
注:① very可修飾最高級(jí),但位置與much不同。例如:This is the very best./This is much the best.
②序數(shù)詞通常只修飾最高級(jí)。例如:Africa is the second largest continent.
3)最高級(jí)的意義有時(shí)可以用比較級(jí)表示出來。例如:
Mike is the most intelligent in his class. 馬克是班上最聰明的。
Mike is more intelligent than any other students in his class.
4) "否定詞語+比較級(jí)","否定詞語+ so… as"結(jié)構(gòu)也可以表示最高級(jí)含義。例如:Nothing is so easy as this. =Nothing is easier than this. =This is the easiest thing.
13、和more有關(guān)的詞組:
1)the more…the more…越……就越……。例如:The harder you work,the greater progress you'll make. 越努力,進(jìn)步越大。
2)more B than A=less A than B與其說A不如說B。例如:
He is more lazy than slow at his work. = He is less slow than lazy at his work. 他工作時(shí),與其說是反應(yīng)慢不如說是懶。
3) no more… than… 與……一樣……,不比……多。例如:
The officials could see no more than the Emperor. 官員們看到的和皇帝一樣多。
no less… than…與……一樣……。例如:He is no less diligent than you. 他和你一樣勤勉。
4) more than不只是,非常。例如:She is more than kind to us all. 她對(duì)我們非常熱心。
例如:The weather in China is different from that in America.
After the new technique was introduced,the factory produced twice as many tractors in 1988 as the year before.
Chapter 11. 代詞
一、概念:
代詞是代替名詞的詞, 大多數(shù)代詞具有名詞和形容詞的功能。按其意義、特征及其在句中的作用分為:人稱代詞、物主代詞、指示代詞、反身代詞、相互代詞、疑問代詞、不定代詞和關(guān)系代詞等。
1、人稱代詞是表示"我"、"你"、"他"、"她"、"它"、"我們"、"你們"、"他們"的詞。人稱代詞有人稱、數(shù)和格的變化,見下表:
數(shù)
單數(shù)
復(fù)數(shù)
主格
賓格
主格
賓格
第一人稱
I
me
we
us
第二人稱
you
you
you
you
第三人稱
he
him
they
them
she
her
they
them
it
it
they
them
2、物主代詞是表示所有關(guān)系的代詞,也可叫做代詞所有格。物主代詞分形容性物主代詞和名詞性物主代詞兩種,其人物和數(shù)的變化見下表。
數(shù)
單數(shù)
復(fù)數(shù)
人稱
第一人稱
第二人稱
第三人稱
第一人稱
第二人稱
第三人稱
形容詞性物主代詞
my
your
his/her/its
our
your
their
名詞性物主代詞
mine
yours
his/hers/its
ours
yours
theirs
3、指示代詞表示"那個(gè)"、"這個(gè)"、"這些"、"那些"等指示概念的代詞。指示代詞有this,that,these,those等。指示代詞分單數(shù)(this / that)和復(fù)數(shù)(these / those)兩種形式,既可作限定詞又可做代詞。例如:
單數(shù)
復(fù)數(shù)
限定詞
This girl is Mary.
Those men are my teachers.
代詞
This is Mary.
Those are my teachers.
4、表示"我自己"、"你自己"、"他自己"、"我們自己"、"你們自己"和"他們自己"等的代詞,叫做自身代詞,也稱為"反身代詞"。
數(shù)
單數(shù)
復(fù)數(shù)
人稱
第一人稱
第二人稱
第三人稱
第一人稱
第二人稱
第三人稱
人稱代詞
I
you
he/she/it
we
you
they
反身代詞
myself
yourself
yourself/herself/himself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
另外:one的反身代詞為oneself
5、表示相互關(guān)系的代詞叫相互代詞,表示句中動(dòng)詞所敘述的動(dòng)作或感覺在涉及的各個(gè)對(duì)象之間是相互存在的。只有each other 和one another兩組,但在運(yùn)用中,這兩組詞沒什么大的區(qū)別。例如:
It is easy to see that the people of different cultures have always copied each other. 顯而易見,不同文化的人總是相互借鑒的。
6、非指明代替任何特定名詞的代詞叫做不定代詞。常見的不定代詞有all , both, every, each, either, neither, more, little, few, much, many, another, other, some, any , one, no 以及some, something, anything, everything, somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, nothing , nobody, no one, none, everybody, everyone等。這些不定代詞大都可以代替名詞和形容詞,在句中作主語、賓語、表語和定語,但none和由some,any,no等構(gòu)成的復(fù)合不定代詞只能作主語、賓語或表語;every和no只能作定語。
7、疑問代詞有who,whom,whose,what和which等。在句子中用來構(gòu)成特殊疑問句。疑問代詞都可用作連接代詞,引導(dǎo)名詞性從句(主語從句、賓語從句和表語從句)。
指人: who, whom, whose
指物: what
既可指人又可指物: which
8、關(guān)系代詞有who,whom,whose,that,which,as等,可用作引導(dǎo)從句的關(guān)聯(lián)詞。它們?cè)诙ㄕZ從句中可作主語、表語、賓語、定語等;另一方面它們又代表主句中為定語從句所修飾的那個(gè)名詞或代詞(先行詞)。例如:
He is the man whom you have been looking for. 他就是你要找的那個(gè)人。
二、相關(guān)知識(shí)點(diǎn)精講:
1、人稱代詞的用法
①人稱代詞的主格在句子中作主語或主語補(bǔ)語。例如:
John waited a while but eventually he went home. /John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she.
注:在復(fù)合句中,如果主句和從句主語相同,代詞主語要用在從句中,名詞主語用在主句中。例如:
When he arrived, John went straight to the bank. 約翰一到就直接去銀行了。
②人稱代詞的賓格在句子中作賓語或介詞賓語,但在口語中也能作主語補(bǔ)語,第一人稱在省略句中,還可以作主語。例如:
I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her.
③人稱代詞還可作表語,作表語時(shí)用賓格。例如:---Whos is knocking at the door?---It’s me.
④人稱代詞在than之后與其他人或事物進(jìn)行比較時(shí),用主格和賓格都可以。如:He is older than me.=He is older than I am.
⑤人稱代詞有主格和賓格之分。通常主格作主語,賓格作賓語。
注:①在簡(jiǎn)短對(duì)話中,當(dāng)人稱代詞單獨(dú)使用或在not 后,多用賓語。②在表示比較的非正式的文體中,常用賓格代替主格。 但如果比較狀語的謂語保留,則主語只能用主格。③在介詞but,except 后,有時(shí)可用主格代替賓格。④在電話用語中常用主格。⑤在動(dòng)詞be 或to be 后的人稱代詞視其前面的名詞或代詞而定。
注:①不定代詞 anybody,everybody,nobody,anyone,someone,everyone,no one,及whoever和person在正式場(chǎng)合使用時(shí),可用he, his, him代替。②動(dòng)物名詞的指代一般用it或they代替,有時(shí)也用he, she,帶有親切的感情色彩。③指代車或國(guó)家,船舶的名詞,含感情色彩時(shí)常用she。
注:并列人稱代詞的排列順序
①單數(shù)人稱代詞并列作主語時(shí),其順序?yàn)椋旱诙朔Q→第三人稱→第一人稱,即you→he/she; it→ I。
②復(fù)數(shù)人稱代詞作主語時(shí),其順序?yàn)椋旱谝蝗朔Q→第二人稱→第三人稱,即we→you→they。
注:在下列情況中,第一人稱放在前面
①在承認(rèn)錯(cuò)誤,承擔(dān)責(zé)任時(shí):It was I and John that made her angry. 是我和約翰惹她生氣了。
②在長(zhǎng)輩對(duì)晚輩,長(zhǎng)官對(duì)下屬說話時(shí),如長(zhǎng)官為第一人稱,如:I and you try to finish it. 我和你去弄好它。
③并列主語只有第一人稱和第三人稱時(shí)。
④當(dāng)其他人稱代詞或名詞被定語從句修飾時(shí)。
2、物主代詞的用法
①物主代詞既有表示所屬的作用又有指代作用。例如:John had cut his finger; apparently there was a broken glass on his desk.
注:物主代詞有形容詞性(my, your等)和名詞性(mine, yours等)兩種,形容詞性的物主代詞屬于限定詞。名詞性的物主代詞在用法上相當(dāng)于省略了中心名詞的--'s屬格結(jié)構(gòu)。
②形容詞性物主代詞的作用相當(dāng)于形容詞,可在句中作定語。例如:Our teacher is coming to see us.
③名詞性物主代詞的作用相當(dāng)于名詞,在句中可用作主語、賓語和表語。例如:
May I use your pen? Yours works better.(作主語)
--- Is this English-book yours? (作表語)--- No. Mine is in my bag.(作主語)
I love my motherland as much as you love yours.(作賓語)
注:雙重所有格
物主代詞不可與 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which等詞一起前置,修飾一個(gè)名詞,而必須用雙重所有格。公式為:a, an, this, that +名詞+of +名詞性物主代詞。例如:a friend of mine, each brother of his.
3、指示代詞的用法
①作主語:this和these一般用來指在時(shí)間或空間上較近的事物或人,that和those則指時(shí)間和空間上較遠(yuǎn)的事物或人,例如:
This is a pen and that is a pencil./We are busy these days./ In those days the workers had a hard time.
注:①有時(shí)that和those指前面講到過的事物,this 和these則是指下面將要講到的事物,例如:
What I want to say is this:pronunciation is very important in learning English.
②有時(shí)為了避免重復(fù)提到的名詞,??捎胻hat或those代替,例如:
Television sets made in Beijing are just as good as those made in Shanghai.
③this 在電話用語中代表自己,that 則代表對(duì)方。例如:Hello! This is Mary. Is that Jack speaking?
②作賓語,例如:I like this better than that./ I don't say no to that.
③作表語,例如:My point is this.
注:That和those可作定語從句的先行詞,但this和 these不能,同時(shí),在作先行詞時(shí),只有those可指人。
4、反身代詞的用法
①作賓語,表示動(dòng)作的承受者就是動(dòng)作的發(fā)出者,主語和賓語指同一個(gè)人或一些人。如absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave+oneself。例如:Please help yourself to some fish.
注:有些動(dòng)詞后不跟反身代詞,如:get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up等。
②作表語,如結(jié)構(gòu)be oneself。例如:It doesn't matter.I'll be myself soon.
③作主語或賓語的同位語,表示親自或本人。例如:The thing itself is not important.
注:反身代詞本身不能單獨(dú)作主語,但在and, or, nor連接的并列主語中,第二個(gè)主語可用反身代詞,特別是myself 作主語。例如:Myself drove the car.(×);Charles and myself saw it.(√);
5、不定代詞的用法
①除every 和no外不定代詞既可用作名詞,也可用作形容詞。every和no在句中只能作定語。例如:I have no idea about it.
②all都,指三者以上。all的主謂一致:all的單復(fù)數(shù)由它所修飾或指代的名詞的單復(fù)數(shù)決定,All goes well.一切進(jìn)展得很好。
注:①all通常不與可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)連用,但all可與表時(shí)間的可數(shù)名詞單數(shù)連用,如 all day,all night,all the year;但習(xí)慣上不說 all hour,all century。
②all還可以與一些特殊的單數(shù)名詞連用。
現(xiàn)將幾個(gè)常用的不定代詞舉例說明如下:
⑴some與any的區(qū)別
①some多用于肯定句,表示“一些,幾個(gè)”作形容詞時(shí), 可與復(fù)數(shù)名詞及不可數(shù)名詞連用。當(dāng)做"某一"解時(shí),與單數(shù)名詞連用。(= a certain),例如:A certain (some) person has seen you break the rule.
②any多用于疑問句、條件句和否定句中,表示“一些,任何”用作形容詞時(shí), 可與復(fù)數(shù)名詞及不可數(shù)名詞連用。當(dāng)句中含有任何的意思時(shí),any可用于肯定句。例如:If you have any questions, please ask me.
③any和some也可以作代詞用,表示“一些”。any多用于疑問句或否定句中,some多用于肯定句中,在肯定疑問句中用some代替any。例如:If you have no money, I'll lend you some.
注:當(dāng)否定的是整體中的部分時(shí),some可用于否定句。例如:I haven't heard from some of my old friends these years.
注:與some, any結(jié)合的詞如something, somebody, someone, anything, anyone, anybody在肯定句、否定句、疑問句、條件句中的用法,大致和some, any的用法相同。
⑵few, a few, little, a little在用法上的區(qū)別
①用作形容詞:(a)few +可數(shù)名詞, (a)little +不可數(shù)名詞
含義
用法
表示肯定
表示否定
用于可數(shù)名詞
a few雖少,但有幾個(gè)
few不多,幾乎沒有
用于不可數(shù)名詞
a little,雖少,但有一點(diǎn)
little不多,沒有什么
②a little和little也可以用作副詞,a little表示“有點(diǎn),稍微”,little表示“很少”。例如:
Mary, go a little faster, please. (修飾副詞比較級(jí))/She slept very little last night.
⑶other, the other, another, others, the others
①other可以作形容詞用,后面可以跟單數(shù)或復(fù)數(shù)名詞,意思是“其他的、別的”。例如:I haven't any other books except this one.
②other也可以用作代詞,與冠詞the連用構(gòu)成“the other”,表示兩個(gè)人或物中的“另一個(gè)”。常與one搭配構(gòu)成“one ..., the other ...”句型。例如:
He has two brothers. One is 10 years old , the other is 5 years old.
She held a ruler in one hand and an exercise-book in the other.
③other作代詞用時(shí),可以有復(fù)數(shù)“others”,泛指“另外的人或物”。常與some搭配構(gòu)成“some ...., others ...”句型。
Some went to the cinema, others went swimming./This coat is too large. Show me some others, please.
④“the others”表示特指某范圍內(nèi)的“其他的人或物”。例如:We got home by 4 o'clock, but the others didn't get back until 8 o'clock.
⑤another可以作形容詞用,修飾后面的名詞,意為“另一個(gè)”,還可以跟代詞one。例如:You can see another ship in the sea, can't you?
⑥another也可以作代詞用,表示“另一個(gè)”。例如:I'm still hungry after I've had this cake. Please give me another.
⑷every與each的區(qū)別
each
1)可單獨(dú)使用2)可做代名詞、形容詞3)著重“個(gè)別” 4)用于兩者或兩者以上中的每一個(gè)人或物
every
1)不可單獨(dú)使用2)僅作形容詞3)著重“全體”,毫無例外4)用于三者或三者以上每一個(gè)人或物5) 有反復(fù)重復(fù)的意思
例如:The teacher gave a toy to each child./ Each ball has a different colour.
當(dāng)我們說each child, each student或each teacher時(shí),我們想到的是一個(gè)人的情況。而當(dāng)我們說every child和every student時(shí),我們想到的是全體的情況,every的意思與all接近,表示他們都如此。
Every student loves the English teacher. = All students love the English teacher.
⑸all和both,neither和nor的用法
①all指三者以上或不可數(shù)的事物。謂語動(dòng)詞既可以用單數(shù),也可以用作復(fù)數(shù)。在句中作主語、表語、賓語、同位語和定語。
②both都,指兩者。both 與復(fù)數(shù)動(dòng)詞連用,但 both… and…可與單數(shù)名詞連用。“of +代詞(或名詞)”連用時(shí),名詞需為復(fù)數(shù)。
③both,all 都可作同位語,其位置在行為動(dòng)詞前,be 動(dòng)詞之后。如果助動(dòng)詞或情態(tài)動(dòng)詞后面的實(shí)義動(dòng)詞省去,則位于助動(dòng)詞或情態(tài)動(dòng)詞之前。
④neither兩者都不,neither作主語時(shí),謂語動(dòng)詞用單數(shù)。作定語與單數(shù)名詞連用,但neither… nor 用作并列連詞,可與復(fù)數(shù)名詞連用。其謂語采用就近原則。
注:neither 與nor 的比較
①如前句是否定式從句,則主句用neither,而不用 nor。例如:If you don't do it,neither should I.
②如后連續(xù)有幾個(gè)否定句式,則用nor,不用neither。例如:He can't sing,nor dance,nor skate.
⑹one,ones,that 和it
①one表示泛指,that和it 表示特指。that與所指名詞為同類,但不是同一個(gè),而it 與所指名詞為同一個(gè)。
②ones必須和形容詞連用。如果替代的名詞時(shí)無形容詞在前,則用some, any,而不用ones。
⑺anyone與any one,no one與none
①anyone和any one:anyone僅指人,any one既可指人,也可指物。
②no one和none:none 后跟of短語,既可指人又可指物,而no one只單獨(dú)使用,只指人。none作主語,謂語動(dòng)詞用單,復(fù)數(shù)均可,而no one作主語謂語動(dòng)詞只能是單數(shù)。
6、相互代詞的用法
①作動(dòng)詞賓語,例如:People should love one another. 人們應(yīng)當(dāng)彼此相愛。
②作介詞賓語,例如:Does bark, cocks crow, frogs croak to each other.吠、雞鳴、蛙兒對(duì)唱。
注:傳統(tǒng)語法認(rèn)為,相互關(guān)系存在于兩個(gè)人或物之間用each other, 存在于兩個(gè)以上人和物之間用one another?,F(xiàn)代英語中,兩組詞交替使用的實(shí)例也很多。例如:
Usually these small groups were independent of each other. 這些小團(tuán)體通常是相互獨(dú)立的。
③作定語用時(shí),相互代詞用所有格形式,例如:The students corrected each other's / one another's mistakes in their homework.
7、疑問代詞的用法
①疑問代詞用于特殊疑問句中,一般都放在句首,并在句子中作為某一句子成分。例如:Who is going to come here tomorrow?
②疑問代詞在句中應(yīng)位于謂語動(dòng)詞之前,沒有性和數(shù)的變化,除who之外也沒有格的變化。what, which, whose還可作限定詞。例如:
疑問代詞:What was the directional flow of U. S. territorial expansion? 美國(guó)的領(lǐng)土擴(kuò)張是朝哪個(gè)方向的?
限定詞:What events led to most of the east of the Mississippi River becoming part of the United States? 哪些事件使密西西比河以東的大部分土地歸屬于美國(guó)?
注:①無論是做疑問代詞還是限定詞,which 和 what 所指的范圍不同。what所指的范圍是無限的,而which則指在一定的范圍內(nèi)。例如:Which girls do you like best?你喜歡哪幾個(gè)姑娘?What girls do you like best?你喜歡什么樣的姑娘?
②Whom是who的賓格,在書面語中,它作動(dòng)詞賓語或介詞賓語,在口語中作賓語時(shí),可用who代替,但在介詞后只能用whom。
③疑問代詞用于對(duì)介詞賓語提問時(shí),過去的文體中介詞和疑問代詞通常一起放在句首,現(xiàn)代英語中,疑問代詞在句首,介詞在句末。例如:For what do most people live and work?(舊文體)What are you looking for?(現(xiàn)代英語)
④疑問代詞還可引導(dǎo)名詞性從句。例如:I can't make out what he is driving at. 我不知道他用意何在。
8、關(guān)系代詞的用法
①關(guān)系代詞用來引導(dǎo)定語從句。它代表先行詞,同時(shí)在從句中作一定的句子成分,在句中可用作主語,表語,賓語,定語。在主句中,它們還代表著從句所修飾的那個(gè)名詞或代詞。例如:
The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin. 跟我講話的姑娘是我表妹。
該句中whom既代表先行詞the girl,又在從句中作介詞to的賓語。
②關(guān)系代詞有主格,賓格和屬格之分,并有指人與指物之分。在限定性定語從句中,that 可指人也可指物,見表:
指人
指物
指人或指物
主 格
who
which
that
賓 格
whom
that
that
屬 格
whose
of which/whose
of which/whose
例如:This is the pencil whose point is broken. 這就是那枝折了尖的鉛筆。(whose 指物,在限定性定語從句中作定語)
He came back for the book which he had forgotten.他回來取他丟下的書。(which指物,在限定性定語從句中作賓語,可以省略)
注:非限定性定語從句中,不能用that作關(guān)系代詞。
③關(guān)系代詞which的先行詞可以是一個(gè)句子,例如:He said he saw me there, which was a lie.
注:關(guān)系代詞在從句中作賓語時(shí)可以省略。另外,關(guān)系代詞that在從句中作表語時(shí)也可省略,例如
I've forgotten much of the Latin I once knew.  我過去懂拉丁語,現(xiàn)在大都忘了。
He's changed. He's not the man he was. 他變化很大,已不是過去的他了。
Chapter .12名詞
一、概念:
名詞是表示人,事物,地點(diǎn)或抽象概念的名稱的詞,有專有名詞和普通名詞之分,還有可數(shù)名詞與不可數(shù)名詞之分。專有名詞是某個(gè)(些)人,地方,機(jī)構(gòu)等專有的名稱,如Beijing,China等。普通名詞是一類人或東西或是一個(gè)抽象概念的名詞,如:book,sadness等。普通名詞又可分為下面四類:
1)個(gè)體名詞:表示某類人或東西中的個(gè)體,如:gun。
2)集體名詞:表示若干個(gè)個(gè)體組成的集合體,如:family。
3)物質(zhì)名詞:表示無法分為個(gè)體的實(shí)物,如:air。
4)抽象名詞:表示動(dòng)作、狀態(tài)、品質(zhì)、感情等抽象概念,如:work。
個(gè)體名詞和集體名詞可以用數(shù)目來計(jì)算,稱為可數(shù)名詞,物質(zhì)名詞和抽象名詞一般無法用數(shù)目計(jì)算,稱為不可數(shù)名詞。歸納一下,名詞的分類可以下圖表示:
名詞
專有名詞
不可數(shù)名詞
普通名詞
物質(zhì)名詞
抽象名詞
集體名詞
可數(shù)名詞
個(gè)體名詞
二、相關(guān)知識(shí)點(diǎn)精講:
1、名詞復(fù)數(shù)的規(guī)則變化
構(gòu)成方法
讀音
例詞
一般情況
加 -s
清輔音后讀/s/
map-maps
濁輔音和元音后讀 /z/
bag-bags /car-cars
以s, sh, ch, x等結(jié)尾
加 -es
讀 /iz/
bus-buses/ watch-watches
以ce, se, ze,等結(jié)尾
加 -s
讀 /iz/
license-licenses
以輔音字母+y結(jié)尾
變y 為i再加es
讀 /z/
baby---babies
2、其它名詞復(fù)數(shù)的規(guī)則變化
構(gòu)成方法
例詞
以y結(jié)尾的專有名詞,或元音字母+y 結(jié)尾的名詞
直接加s變復(fù)數(shù)
The Henrys,monkeys,holidays
以o 結(jié)尾的名詞
加s
Photos,pianos,radios,zoos
加es
Potatoes,tomatoes
加s加es均可
zero---zeros / zeroes
以f或fe 結(jié)尾的名詞
加s
Beliefs,roofs,safes,gulfs
去f,fe 加ves
Halves,knives,leaves,wolves,wives,thieves
均可
handkerchief: handkerchiefs / handkerchieves
3、名詞復(fù)數(shù)的不規(guī)則變化
1) child---children;foot---feet;tooth---teeth;mouse---mice;man---men;woman---women
注:由一個(gè)詞加 man 或 woman構(gòu)成的合成詞,其復(fù)數(shù)形式也是 -men 和-women,如an Englishman,two Englishmen。但German不是合成詞,故復(fù)數(shù)形式為Germans;Bowman是姓,其復(fù)數(shù)是the Bowmans。
2)單復(fù)同形,如deer,sheep,fish,Chinese,Japanese ,li,jin,yuan,two li,three mu,four jin等。但除人民幣的元、角、分外,美元、英鎊、法郎等都有復(fù)數(shù)形式。如:a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters。
3)集體名詞,以單數(shù)形式出現(xiàn),但實(shí)為復(fù)數(shù)。例如:people,police,cattle等本身就是復(fù)數(shù),不能說a people,a police,a cattle,但可以說a person,a policeman,a head of cattle。 the English,the British,the French,the Chinese,the Japanese,the Swiss等名詞,表示國(guó)民總稱時(shí),作復(fù)數(shù)用。例如:The Chinese are industries and brave.中國(guó)人民是勤勞勇敢的。
4)以s結(jié)尾,仍為單數(shù)的名詞,如:① maths,politics,physics等學(xué)科名詞,一般是不可數(shù)名詞,為單數(shù)。②news 為不可數(shù)名詞。③the United States,the United Nations 應(yīng)視為單數(shù)。④以復(fù)數(shù)形式出現(xiàn)的書名,劇名,報(bào)紙,雜志名,也可視為單數(shù)。
例如:The United Nations was organized in 1945. 聯(lián)合國(guó)是1945年組建起來的。
"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book. 《一千零一夜》是一本非常有趣的故事書。
5)表示由兩部分構(gòu)成的東西,如:glasses(眼鏡),trousers, clothes等,若表達(dá)具體數(shù)目,要借助數(shù)量詞。如:pair(對(duì),雙); suit(套);
6)一些名詞,其復(fù)數(shù)形式有時(shí)可表示特別意思,如:goods貨物,waters水域,fishes(各種)魚。
4、不可數(shù)名詞量的表示
物質(zhì)名詞
①當(dāng)物質(zhì)名詞轉(zhuǎn)化為個(gè)體名詞時(shí)為可數(shù)
Cake is a kind of food.(不可數(shù));These cakes are sweet.(可數(shù))
②當(dāng)物質(zhì)名詞表示該物質(zhì)的種類時(shí),可數(shù)。
This factory produces steel.(不可數(shù))
We need various steels.(可數(shù))
③當(dāng)物質(zhì)名詞表示份數(shù)時(shí),可數(shù)。
Two teas, please.請(qǐng)來兩杯茶。
抽象名詞表示具體的事例時(shí)也可數(shù)。
four freedoms 四大自由,the four modernizations四個(gè)現(xiàn)代化
物質(zhì)名詞和抽象名詞可以借助單位詞表一定的數(shù)量,如a glass of water 一杯水/ a piece of advice 一則建議。
5、定語名詞的復(fù)數(shù)
名詞作定語一般用單數(shù),但也有以下例外。
1)用復(fù)數(shù)作定語。例如:sports meeting運(yùn)動(dòng)會(huì);students reading-room學(xué)生閱覽室;talks table談判桌;the foreign languages department外語系。
2) man, woman, gentleman等作定語時(shí),其單復(fù)數(shù)以所修飾的名詞的單復(fù)數(shù)而定。例如:men workers;women teachers;gentlemen officials。
3)有些原有s結(jié)尾的名詞,作定語時(shí),s保留。例如:goods train(貨車),arms produce武器生產(chǎn),customs papers海關(guān)文件,clothes brush衣刷。
4)數(shù)詞+名詞作定語時(shí),這個(gè)名詞一般保留單數(shù)形式。例如:two-dozen eggs兩打雞蛋,a ten-mile walk十英里路,two-hundred trees 兩百棵樹,a five-year plan一個(gè)五年計(jì)劃。
6、不同國(guó)籍人的單復(fù)數(shù)
國(guó)籍
總稱
單數(shù)
復(fù)數(shù)
國(guó)籍
總稱
單數(shù)
復(fù)數(shù)
中國(guó)人
the Chinese
a Chinese
two Chinese
日本人
the Japanese
a Japanese
two Japanese
瑞士人
the Swiss
a Swiss
two Swiss
德國(guó)人
the Germans
a German
two Germans
澳大利亞人
theAustralians
an Australian
twoAustralians
美國(guó)人
the Americans
an American
two Americans
俄國(guó)人
the Russians
a Russian
two Russians
英國(guó)人
the English
anEnglishman
twoEnglishmen
意大利人
the Italians
an Italian
two Italians
加拿大人
the Canadians
a Canadian
two Canadians
希臘人
the Greek
a Greek
two Greeks
瑞典人
the Swedish
a Swede
two Swedes
法國(guó)人
the French
a Frenchman
twoFrenchmen
印度人
the Indians
an Indian
two Indians
7、名詞的格
英語中有些名詞可以加"'s"來表示所有關(guān)系,帶這種詞尾的名詞形式稱為該名詞的所有格,名詞所有格的規(guī)則如下:
1)單數(shù)名詞詞尾加"'s",復(fù)數(shù)名詞詞尾沒有s,也要加"'s",如the boy's bag,men's room。
2若名詞已有復(fù)數(shù)詞尾-s ,只加" ' ",如:the workers' struggle。
3)凡不能加"'s"的名詞,都可以用"名詞+of +名詞"的結(jié)構(gòu)來表示所有關(guān)系,如:the title of the song。
4)在表示店鋪或教堂的名字或某人的家時(shí),名詞所有格的后面常常不出現(xiàn)它所修飾的名詞,如:the barber's。
5)如果兩個(gè)名詞并列,并且分別有's,則表示"分別有";只有一個(gè)'s,則表示'共有'。例如:John's and Mary's rooms(兩間),John and Mary's room(一間)
6)復(fù)合名詞或短語,'s 加在最后一個(gè)詞的詞尾。例如:a month or two's absence。
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